THE BOISE SURVEY 

J. B. SEARS 



EDUCATIONAL SUR 




Class A 2 C. fi 

Book.__ 

GDipghtN!* 

C.QP5fR!GHT DEPOSIT. 



EDUCATIONAL SURVEY SERIES 



The Boise Survey 



EDUCATIONAL SURVEY SERIES 

The Boise Survey 

A Concrete Study of the Admin- 
istration of a City School System 

By J. B. SEARS 



ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, OF EDUCATION 
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 

Assisted by 
William M. Proctor 

and 
J. Harold Williams 




YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

1920 



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.SL^ 



^SEP 17 1920 
©CI.A597459 



DIRECTOR'S LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 

Mr. Oliver O. Haga, President Board of Trustees, Boise Inde- 
pendent School District, Boise, Idaho 

Dear Sir: 

In accordance with the authorization by resolution of your 
board, of date April 17, 1919, I have the honor to submit to you 
herewith the complete report of the survey of the public school 
system of your city. 

In carrying out the purposes of your Board the survey staff, 
consisting of: 

J. B. Sears, Director of the Survey, Associate Professor of 
Education, Leland Stanford Junior University; 

William M. Proctor, Assistant Professor of Education, Le- 
land Stanford Junior University; and 

J. Harold Williams, Director of Research, Whittier (Calif.) 
State School for Delinquents, 

spent approximately two weeks, beginning May 19, in active 
study and observation of the schools in operation. During that 
time conferences were held with your board, with the superin- 
tendent of schools, and with numerous school principals and other 
school officers; careful examination was made of financial and 
educational records, together with the systems used in reporting, 
recording, filing, and using such data; the whole school plant 
was thoroughly examined; standard tests were applied in three 
different subjects to a large number of children in the elementary 
schools; and numerous observations were made of classroom in- 
struction. 

While carrying out this work many data touching the various 
subjects dealt with in this report were gathered, and, through the 
courteous assistance of several students from the commercial de- 
partment of the high school, a considerable amount of preliminary 
tabulation was effected, thus making it possible to direct our 
observation and study more definitely to the point while on the 
ground. 



vi Director's Letter of Transmittal 

In pieparing this report each member of the staff was made 
responsible for organizing certain materials and for writing cer- 
tain chapters ; yet special point was made of keeping all members 
in close touch with every line of investigation carried out and, 
both while in Boise and while writing the report, numerous con- 
ferences were held. It is correct to say, therefore, that every 
main feature of the report represents the judgment of the entire 
staff. While the Director must assume responsibility for the 
general plan of the survey and for the editorial work on the report, 
authorship is otherwise indicated for each chapter. 

The report has attempted not only to present conclusions and 
to make recommendations but to state the facts and reasons upon 
which such conclusions and recommendations are based. We 
have tried to speak frankly, either in commendation or condemna- 
tion, and if frankness at times seems to approach bluntness it is 
with the view of convincing the busy citizen of the city that his 
help is needed if the city is to have a progressive school policy. 

It is hoped that one important function of this report will be 
to reveal to the taxpayers of your city that their schools consti- 
tute one of Boise's largest and most important enterprises and 
one the interests of which are intimately interwoven with all the 
social, intellectual, religious, civic, and business interests of the 
city. 

The wishes of your board that the schools be in every sense 
open to the survey staff were fully realized. Special thanks are 
due Superintendent C. E. Rose and his entire staff of supervisors, 
principals, and teachers, as well as other school officers, especially 
including Mr. Charles S. Kingsley, clerk of the board, and also 
the several high school students above mentioned for the very 
considerable amount of intelligent assistance which they so cheer- 
fully rendered. 

Respectfully submitted, 

J. B. Sears 

Director of the Survey 
SxANroRD University, California 
December 5, 1919 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Director's Letter of Transmittal v 

Chapter 

I. Boise's Educational Problem i 



Boise a growing city — Composition of the population — Illiteracy — 
Wealth and occupations — How the city spends its money — The prob- 
lem stated 

II. Organization and Administration 22 

The legal status of the district — Significance of such wide legal powers — 
The administrative organization — Imperfections in organization — A 
right plan of organization — Simimary and recommendations 

III, The Teaching Staff 41 

Size and development of the staff — The training of Boise's teachers — 
Experience and tenure of Boise's teachers — The ages of Boise's teachers 

— Social composition of Boise's teaching staff — Boise's salary schedule 

— Siunmary and recommendations 

TV, The Curriculum 64 

Extent of Boise's educational program — What a curriculima is — The ele- 
mentary school curriculum in Boise — What a printed course of study 
should contain — Boise's outline of courses — Time allotment, or the rela- 
tive importance of studies — Sximmary and recommendations 

V. Efficiency of the Instruction 82 

General considerations — Observations of classroom work — Standard- 
ized tests — The test in handwriting — The test in spelling — The test in 
arithmetic — Summary — Recommendations 

VI. Progress of the Children in the Schools , 128 

The distribution of the pupik — Accelerated pupils — Retarded pupils — 
Extent of retardation — Results of retardation — Causes of retardation 

— Summary 

VII. Individual Differences among THE Children, 141 

The variabihty of children — Mental differences — Intelligence test- 
ing — Superior children — Opportunity classes for gifted children — 
Backward children — Batavia teaching for backward pupils — Special 
classes for backward pupils — Feeble-minded children — Examples of 
feeble-mindedness — Differences in conduct — Juvenile delinquency in 
the schools — Dependent children — Physically handicapped children — 
Research work in the schools — Summary and recommendations 



viii Contents 

Chapter Page 

VIII. The Children's Health i6i 

What Boise is doing — Additional nurses needed — A brief health survey 
by the teachers — Posture — Nutrition — Tuberculosis — Contagion in 
the schools — Ventilation and health — Teeth — Nose and throat — 
Hearing — Eye troubles — Nervous conditions — Speech problems — 
Mental conditions and health — Play and health — Sources of infection 

— Hygiene teaching — The teacher's health — The janitor and health — 
Open-air schools — Summary and recommendations 

IX. Buildings and Grounds 192 

The building situation in Boise — Buildings measured by standard scale — 
The school grounds — Playgroimd equipment — Orientation of buildings 

— Type of buildings — Interior construction — Basements — Heating 
and ventilation — Fire protection — Cleaning system — Artificial light- 
ing — Clocks, gongs, telephones — Drinking fountains — Lavatories and 
baths — Toilets — Classrooms — Blackboards — Lighting of classrooms 

— Windows — Window shades — Cloakrooms and wardrobes — Class- 
room equipment — Special rooms — Age and efficiency — Sununary and 
recommendations 

X. The High School ...... 223 

Articulation between the elementary grades and the high school — Build- 
ing and equipment — The high school faculty — Curriculum featvires — 
Certain phases of the internal administration — The need for a junior col- 
lege in Boise — Summary and recommendations 

XI. Educational and Vocational Guidance . . 247 

The need for educational and vocational guidance in Boise — A reason- 
able program of educational and vocational gxiidance for Boise — Sum- 
mary and recommendations 

XII. Costs and Business Management 262 

The problem stated — How Boise's school expenditures are distributed — 
The business management of Boise's schools — Summary and recommen- 
dations 

XIII. Summary and Recommendations 283 

Index 287 



THE BOISE SURVEY 

CHAPTER I 

BOISE'S EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM 

(Sears) 

THE educational problem which the city of Boise is at- 
tempting to solve will be more clearly understood if 
stated first of all in terms which characterize the community 
and its people. Who the people are, what they are working 
at, the geographical, economic, and social forces with which 
they must cope, all combine, as similar forces do everywhere, 
to determine the kind of schools that are needed. 

Boise is a city of approximately 35,000 inhabitants,^ lo- 
cated in the broad, fertile valley of the Boise River and in 
the center of the most densely populated portion of the 
state. Though the state of Idaho comprises a large area of 
the western slope of the Rocky Mountain system and holds 
large mineral resources, it has in the north, and particularly 
in the south and west portions of the state along the Snake 
River and its tributaries, very large agricultural possibilities. 
Government reports show that the soil, climate, and irriga- 
tion possibilities all promise a large agricultural future for 
the state. According to the census report of 19 10, about 
one tenth of the land was in farms, the land of Ada County, 
15 per cent of which was then under irrigation, being at 
that time worth $125 per acre. 

The capital of the state and the couniy seat of Ada 
County are located at Boise, which, with its size and other 
resources, make it the chief center of population between 
Salt Lake City on the southeast and Spokane and Portland 

1 United States Census estimate for 191 7 was 34,547. 

I 



2 The Boise Survey 

on the northwest. For obvious reasons, therefore, Boise 
should become the educational center, not only of Idaho, 
but of a goodly portion of the large section of country known 
as the Inland Empire, and should lead in the establishment 
of higher and higher standards for public education in that 
territory, just as Los Angeles leads in the Southwest. 



BOISE A GROWING CITY 

Idaho as compared with the United States as a whole is 
growing rapidly in population, and the same is true of the 
city of Boise, as the figures of Table i from the United 
States Bureau of the Census will show. To see just what 
this means for the city of Boise we have only to compare 
its rate of growth with that of other cities of its class in 
the United States. From the 57 cities with estimated popu- 
lations (191 7) of between 30,000 and 40,000/ Table 2 
presents facts for 26 cities." 

TABLE 1 

Boise's Rate of Increase in Population as Compared with That 
OF Idaho and That of the United States 





Population 
of State 


Population 
of Boise 


Per Cent Increase over Pre- 
ceding Census 


Census 


United 
States 


Idaho 


Boise 


1910 

1900 

1890 

1880 

1870 


325,594 

161,772 

88,548 

32,610 

14,999 


17,358 

5,957 

2,311 

1,899 

995 


21.0 
20.7 
25-5 
30- 1 


101.3 

82.7 

171-5 

117. 4 


191-4 

157-8 

21.7 

90.9 



1 See Financial Statistics of Cities Having a Population of over 30,000 
in 191 7. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 

2 None of the western cities of the 57 were omitted; otherwise all states 
having cities of this size are represented by at least one such city. 



Boise's Educational Problem 



TABLE 2 

Size and Rate of Growth of Selected Cities 

(Government estimates for 1917)^ 



City 



Population 



1910 



1. Tulsa, Okla 

2. Everett, Wash 

3. BOISE, IDAHO . . . 

4. Bellingham, Wash. . . . 

5. Charleston, W. Va. . . 

6. Portsmouth, Va 

7. Shreveport, La 

8. Stamford, Conn 

9. Ogden, Utah 

10. Niagara Falls, N. Y. . . 

11. Brookline, Mass 

12. Colorado Springs, Colo. . 

13. Austin, Texas 

14. Madison, Wis 

15. Stockton, Calif 

16. Jackson, Mich 

17. Columbia, S. C 

18. Aurora, 111 

19. Joplin, Mo 

20. Orange, N. J 

21. Wihnington, N. C. . . . 

22. Zanesville, Ohio .... 

23. Easton, Penn 

24. Knoxville, Tenn 

25. Newport, Ky 

26. Elmira, N. Y 



16,792 
24,814 
27,358 
24,298 
22,996 
33,190 
28,015 

25,138 
25,580 

30,445 
27,792 
29,078 
29,869 
25,531 
23,253 
31,433 
26,319 
29,807 

32,073 
29,630 
25,748 
28,026 
28,528 
36,346 
30,309 
37,176 



1917 



31,541 
35,486 

34,547 

32,985 
30,500 

39,651 
35,230 
30,907 
31,404 
37,353 
32,730 
32,971 
34,814 
30,699 
35,358 
35,363 
34,611 
34,204 
33,308 
33,080 
30,104 
30,863 

30,533 
38,582 

31,927 
38,120 



Per Cent of Increase 



I 900-1 9 10 



1,208. 1 
216.6 
191. 4 
119 
107 

90 

75 

57 

56.8 



56 

39 

37 

34 

Z2, 

32.8 

24.8 

24.7 

23-4 
23.2 
22.7 
22.7 
19. 1 
13.0 
II. 4 

71 
4.2 



1910-1917 



87.8 
50.9 
26.2 

35-7 
32.6 
19.4 

25-7 

22.4 

22.7 

22.6 

17.7 

13-3 

16.5 

20.2 

52.0 

12.5 

31.5 

14.7 

3.8 

II. 6 

16. 1 

10. 1 

7.0 

6.1 

5.3 

2.5 



From this table it becomes clear that Boise is one of the 
most rapidly growing cities of its class in the country, rank- 
ing third of 26 cities in its rate of growth from 1900 to 19 10, 

1 Estimated, See Note i above. 



4 The Boise Survey 

and holding high place in the group during the seven years 
since the last regular census. The city is not crowded, and 
since it can expand in every direction it need never face the 
problems which come with too great density of population. 
With the growth that is practically guaranteed by the soil 
and mineral resources of the surrounding country, Boise can 
confidently expect to become a city of 50,000 before many 
years and accordingly that her expenditures for education 
will be constantly on the increase. 



COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION 

I. Racial Groups 

It is not merely the rate of growth in population alone 
that creates perplexing educational problems in a city. The 
fact of racial elements is often quite as important. Inquiry 
into Boise's present and prospective future in this respect 
therefore is pertinent. 

Boise's future will depend upon the development of the 
eleven Mountain and Pacific Coast states. In 1910 these 
eleven states had a combined population of 6,825,821. The 
state of Idaho alone had 325,594, and the city of Boise 
17,358. Table 3 shows the racial composition of the people 
of these groups, together with that for the United States as 
a whole. While these facts for the city of Boise are not 
entirely complete, they are complete enough to show that 
the city does not differ materially from the state as a whole. 
The facts of this table somewhat condensed, together with 
figures for the next previous census, are shown graphically 
in Figure i (Boise partially excepted). From this it will be 
seen, not only that Idaho and the city of Boise stand rela- 
tively high in native and white stock, and that the foreign 
element in the West as compared with the United States as 
a whole is on the decline, but that for the state of Idaho 
this decline is more pronounced than it is for either of the 
western groups of states. This is made even more obvious 



Boise's Educational Problem 





TABLE 3 
Racial Composition of Population 








Per Cent of Total Population (U. S. Census) 




White 


Negro 


Orien- 
tal 
and 
AU 

Others 


Natives, White 


Foreign 
Born 
White 


Total 
Native 

(All 
Races) 




PoUtical Division 


Total 


Native 
Par- 
entage 


Foreign 

or 
Mixed 
Par- 
entage 


Total 
Foreign 

Races) 


United States . . 
Mountain States . 
Pacific States . . 

Idaho 

BOISE 


88.9 
95.7 
96.0 
98.0 
97.7 


10.7 
0.8 
0.7 
0.2 
0.7 


0.4 
3-5 
2,3 
1.8 
1.6 


74-4 
79.1 
75-4 
85.6 
84.6 


53.8 
55-7 
SO. 3 
62.5 
67.1 


20. s 
23.4 
25.1 
23.1 
17-5 


\n 

20. 5 
12.4 
13.1 


82.8 
77.2 
86.9 


14.7 
17.2 
22.8 
13. 1 



when we consider that the native stock in Idaho has in- 
creased from 69.4 per cent of the state's population in 1880 
to 86.9 per cent in 1910, or that the foreign group has de- 



P^r cent < 

1910 
UNITED STATES 
1900 

1910 
MOUhTTAIN STATES 
1900 

1910 
FVVCIFIC STATES 

1900 

1910 
IDAHO 

1900 

BOISE'S'O 
P^T cent' C 


? 10 2p 30 40 JO 6p 70 80 90 10 




= 


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i> flo d 


.d 



Fig. I. Composition of Population in Boise Compared with That 
of Larger Areas (U. S. Census) 



6 The Boise Survey 

creased in this time from 30.6 per cent to 13.1 per cent of 
the population. It should be said here, in view of our lack 
of complete statistics, that foreign faces and names among 
the school children of Boise, as well as some study of the 
parentage of the pupils taking tests in this survey, tend to 
confirm our judgment that the above statistics fairly char- 
acterize the population of the Boise Independent School Dis- 
trict at the present time, and that it is safe to say that the 
educational problems produced by the presence of children 
from foreign countries are at present insignificant, and that 
in respect to race the city's school population is rapidly be- 
coming more and more homogeneous. 



2. Age Groups 

The problem of race is but one angle from which we need 
to study the population of a city in order to be able clearly 
to state its educational problem. A second question is: 
How many children has the city to educate, and how many 
vigorous young adults are there to produce the necessary 
wealth with which to pay for schools? The answer to this 
question varies greatly in different parts of the country, as 
Table 4 shows. This table w^as compiled from the 19 10 
census report, and while not entirely accurate for the present 
it is believed to offer a reasonably correct description of the 
present population. 

From this table, which divides the total population into 
four groups, it will be seen that there is fairly wide variation 
among cities in each group, that the distribution for the 
state of Idaho does not vary widely from that for the United 
States as a whole, but that that for the city of Boise varies 
considerably from both. 

In this study we are especially concerned with two groups: 
those 5 to 19 and those 20 to 44 years old. The 5 to 19 
years age-group is a fair index to the per cent of the total 
population for whom regular schooling must be provided. 
The 20 to 44 years age-group is a fair index to the wealth- 



Boise's Educational Problem 

TABLE 4 

Age Distribution of Population 

(United States Census of 1910) 



I. 

2. 
3- 
4. 
5- 
6. 

7. 
8. 

9- 
10. 
II. 

12. 

13- 
14. 

15. 
16. 

17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23. 
24. 

25. 

26. 



Name of City 



United States .... 
Idaho 

Everett, Wash. . . . 
Stockton, Calif. . . . 
Brookline, Mass. . . . 
BOISE, IDAHO . . 
Jackson, Mich. . . . 

Ehnira, N. Y 

Zanesville, Ohio . . . 
Colorado Springs, Colo. 
Niagara Falls, N. Y. . 

Madison, Wis 

Easton, Pa 

Bellingham, Wash. . . 

Aurora, III 

Tulsa, Okla 

Stamford, Conn. . . . 
Shreveport, La. . . . 

Newport, Ky 

Columbia, S. C. . . . 
Portsmouth, Va. . . . 

Orange, N. J 

Wihnington, N. C. . . 

Joplin, Mo 

Charleston, W. Va. . 
Knoxville, Tenn. . . . 
Ogden, Utah .... 
Austin, Texas .... 



Per Cent of Total Population 



Under 
5 Years 



II. 6 
12.4 



6.3 
6.3 
7.5 
8.1 

7-1 
8.8 

7-3 
10. 7 
8.8 
8.6 
8.7 
8.7 



9-7 

11. 

9.1 
8.0 

9-7 

10. 1 
II. I 
10.9 
10.6 
10.8 

8.7 

II. 9 

8.7 



5 to 19 
Years 



304 
30.2 

18.8 

19-5 
20.2 
21.9 

22.8 

24-3 
24.4 

24-5 
24-5 
25.0 

25-1 
25-7 
25.8 
26.4 
26.8 
27.1 
27.6 
27.7 
27.8 
27.8 
27.8 
27.9 
28.1 
28.3 
28.7 
29-3 



20 to 44 
Years 



390 
40.8 



59 

46 

49 
50 

45 
43 
43 
44 
48 
45 
42 
47 
42 

49 
43 
45 
44 
46 
46 
42 
42 
43 
45 
45 
42 
40 



45 Years 
and Over 



19.0 
16.6 



13.0 
27-5 
25-5 
20.1 
24.1 
24.9 
23.6 

23.3 
16.2 
20.7 

24.3 
17.9 
22.9 
14.8 
18.9 
18.7 
20.1 
16.0 
15-6 
18.5 
19.2 
17.7 

259 
17.2 
16.9 
21.3 



8 The Boise Survey 

producing power of the city so far as men count. An ex- 
amination of column 2 of diis table shows that, judged on 
this basis, Boise ranks fourth among 26 cities of its class in 
respect to the smallness of its school population. In other 
words, of the 26 cities 22 have larger percentages of their 
respective populations to provide schooling for than has 
Boise; or, we may say, only three of the 26 cities are in this 
sense carrying a lighter load than Boise carries. 

The vigorous young wealth producers, the men and women 
who have or will soon take over the political and economic 
responsibilities for their respective cities, are included in 
the age-group 20 to 44 years and appear in column 4 of the 
table. In the 26 cities, we find in this group all the way 
from 40.7 per cent of the population in Austin, Texas, to 
59.4 per cent in Everett, Washington, — Everett being the 
only city of the 26 with a higher percentage of its population 
within the limits of these ages than is found in Boise. As 
to infants 5 years old or less, Boise ranks low, only 4 of the 
26 cities having a smaller percentage of their populations 
in this group. 

These figures have a certain significance in defining the 
education problem for Boise. As compared with other cities, 
Boise ranks high in young and middle-aged adults and low 
in infants and children of school age. In other words, when 
measured by other cities of her class, Boise has large wealth- 
producing power in comparison with the number of both 
young and old dependants. Other things being equal, the 
city of Boise should be able to provide for its children, not 
average, but decidedly superior educational advantages. If 
the 5 to 19 years age-group in Boise were 29.3 per cent of 
the total population, as is true for Austin, Texas, it is ob- 
vious that school costs for the city would be very close to 
one third greater than they are at present. 

ILLITERACY 

Another question of importance is. What percentage of 
the city's population is illiterate? Our experience with 



Boise's Educational Problem g 

Bolshevism and with ignorance in general during the recent 
crisis has convinced leading educators the country over that 
henceforth illiteracy must be attacked with a definite and 
clear-cut policy until it is finally stamped out. 

The amount or per cent of illiteracy varies greatly in 
different cities and states throughout the country, as the 
figures of Table 5 will show. For the United States as a 
whole, counting all persons ten years old or older, 7.7 per 
cent are illiterate. For the three Pacific Coast states this 
figure is 3.0 per cent, for the Mountain states it is 6.9 per 
cent, and for the state of Idaho it is but 2.2 per cent. Thus 
Idaho seems to be one of the highly favored states west of 
the Rockies. When we examine these figures more closely, 
we find that invariably illiteracy is greater in rural than in 
urban sections. In the state of Idaho 2.3 per cent of the 
rural people are illiterate, while the same figure for the urban 
population is but 1.7 per cent. 



TABLE 5 
Percentage of Illiteracy in the West 
(All persons lo years old or older — census of igio) 
Percentage of Population which is Illiterate 



Section 


Total 


Urban 


Rural 


United States 

Mountain States 

Pacific States 

Idaho 

Ada Co., Idaho 

CITY OF BOISE 


7-7 
6.9 
3-0 
2.2 
2.9 
4.1 


5-1 
31 
2,0 

1-7 


10. 1 
9.1 
4-3 
2.3 



When we examine the Idaho statistics more carefully, 
however, we discover that Boise is the center at which a 
large part of the state's illiteracy is concentrated. This 



10 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 6 

Percentage of Illiteracy in Cities and Towns of Idaho 

(All persons lo years old or older — census of 1910) 





Per Cent of 




Per Cent of 


City 


Population 
which is 


City 


Population 
which is 




Illiterate 




Illiterate 


Twin Falls . . . 


0.3 


Idaho Falls . . 


1.0 


Pocatello .... 


0.4 


WaUace . . . 


1-3 


Moscow .... 


0.4 


Weiser .... 


1.3 


Lewiston .... 


0.4 


Nampa .... 


1.4 


Coeur d'Alene . 


0.7 


Caldwell. . . . 


1-7 


Sand Point . . . 


I.O 


BOISE .... 


41 



shows clearly when we compare the figures for the cities 
and towns of the state, as in Table 6, which shows clearly 
that the responsibility for freeing the state from the dangers 
of illiteracy rests mainly with the city of Boise. Just how 
large a burden this is as compared with that which other 
cities of this class are bearing may be seen from the diagram 
on page ii, which shows Boise's place among 26 cities of 
its own class. In this group Boise holds fifteenth place 
from the top, or roughly a midway position among cities of 
from 30,000 to 40,000 population in the United States. 

This makes Boise's problem very clear. For the state, 
Boise must bear a large part of the responsibility for doing 
away with illiteracy. As compared with other cities that re- 
sponsibility needs to involve only about an average effort 
and cost. 

If at first thought the doing away with illiteracy, most of 
which is among adults, seems not to be a function of the 
school, then it is insisted here that in this respect the func- 
tion of the American public school must be definitely 



Boise^s Educational Problem 



II 



Percent illiterote 
I Colorado Springs 0.9 
20rooKlineMflss.i.o| 
3BelImghQmWM.f| 
4TulsQ OKla. 

^Oq6Qr\ Utah 
7MoclisonWis 
sjoplin Ma 
^Newport Ky. 
loJflckson Mich. ^1 1 
iiZanesville 0. 221 
ttClmiro N-V 
laEos+on Px 26| 
wStocktonColrfz- 
I5.BOISC 4.1 
leAuropQ III. 4.21 
nChoriestonW-Nfe. 4^| 
wNlaqoraFaltsNYS. 
isKnoxvilie'^nn. 
aoStomfopdConn. 
aOronqe NJ. 
22Au5tin Tex. 7 
23Port3moufh Va 
7^^\\m\ncfi(X\ MC.w. 
2sShreveporf Lo. )5J 
26ColumbiQ 6.C. I' 
Pwcentilltterofe 



ip 




20 



Fig. 2. Per Cent oe Illiteracy in 26 Cities — All Persons 10 Years 
Old or Older (Census of 1910) 



broadened to meet this great national issue. There is no 
reason why the public school should be for children only. 
It should be for all, old as well as young. 



12 The Boise Survey 



WEALTH AND OCCUPATIONS 

As was pointed out above, Boise is a rapidly growing city. 
Its attractions are not wholly financial, however, and in 
wealth Boise does not rank close to the top among cities of 
its class. On the other hand, it does not rank especially 
low. Considering the present state of development, together 
with the rate of growth of the present and future sources of 
Boise's wealth, it is not unreasonable to expect the city to 
have a relatively large financial future. Being the political 
center and largest city, it is likely to continue to be the 
business center of the state. Its wealth increase will depend 
in large degree upon the development of the resources of the 
state, and this promises much, for as yet it can hardly be 
said that the state's resources have been touched. The great 
possibilities are agriculture, timber, and minerals. The 1910 
census report showed the following occupational distribu- 
tion of the inhabitants of the state who were ten years old 
or older: 

Engaged in agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry . . . . 43 . 3 per cent 

" " extraction of minerals 5.2 " 

" " manufacturing and mechanical industries 17.6 " , 

" " transportation 9.1 " 

" trade 8.2 " 

" " professional service 5.2 " 

" " domestic and personal service 7.1 " 

" " clerical occupations 2.5 " 

" " public service not included above 0.9 " 

Total 99 . 1 per cent 

A similar up-to-date distribution would likely vary slightly 
from this, but that the same fields would dominate there is 
little doubt. During the last three census periods the 
amount of land in the state devoted to agriculture has in- 
creased at the rate of two million acres per decade, and the 
indication of recent statistics is that this rate has continued.^ 

It is in respect to these and similar facts about the re- 

1 See Third and Fourth Annual Reports of the Department of Farm 
Markets, State of Idaho, 1917-1918, Boise, Idaho. 



Boise's Educational Problem 13 

sources of the state and their use and development that 
public education in the state must direct no small portion of 
its energy. 

In actual wealth Boise's position among the cities of her 
own class is indicated clearly by Table 7, on page 14. 

While Boise's position is somewhat below the average, it 
is still not a poor city, and its position is likely to become 
better as the state develops. In other words, Boise's finan- 
cial position does not argue that the city should not come up 
to the average in expenditures for education. 



HOW THE CITY SPENDS ITS MONEY 

I. Boise's Income 

There is wide diversity among cities as to the ways in 
which they obtain and expend their revenues, and from the 
standpoint of education as well as from that of business this 
is a question of importance. Boise has an assessed valuation 
of over twenty millions of dollars and in 191 7 levied a tax 
of over a half million. This money was derived from the 
following sources: 

Taxes on property 59.8 per cent 

Business and non-business licenses 1.3 " 

Special assessments and special outlays 23 . 6 " 

Fines, forfeits, escheats, etc 0.8 " 

Subventions, grants, gifts, donations, and pension assessments .10.6 " 

Earnings of general departments 2.0 " 

Highway privileges, rents, and interest 0.9 " 

Earnings of public service enterprises i . o " 

To raise this sum the city levied a tax of $27.75 ^^ each 
$1000 of assessed wealth, or $18.04 on each $1000 of real 
wealth. This means that it cost the people $19.16 per 
capita to run their government. 

Is this a high tax rate and is this a high cost of govern- 
ment? The answer is seen in Table 8, which shows the 
facts for 26 cities. 



14 The Boise Survey 

TABLE 7 

Assessed Wealth and Real Wealth Per Capita Population ^ 



City 



Assessed 
Wealth 



Basis of 

Assessed 
Wealth 



Real 
Wealth 



I. 

2. 

3- 
4- 

s. 

6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 

lO. 

II. 

12. 
14. 

15- 

16. 

17. 
18. 
19. 

20. 

21. 
22. 

23- 
24. 

26. 



Brookline, Mass. . . . 
Stockton, Calif. . . . 

Madison, Wis 

Charleston, W. Va. . . 
Columbia, S. C. ... 
Shreveport, La. . . . 

Aurora, 111 

Stamford, Conn. . . . 
Niagara Falls, N. Y. . 
Colorado Springs, Colo. 
Wilmington, N. C. . . 

Easton, Penn 

Jackson, Mich 

Ogden, Utah 

Tulsa, Okla 

Zanesville, Ohio . . . 
Knoxville, Term. . . . 
Austin, Texas .... 
BOISE, IDAHO . . 

Elmira, N. Y 

Joplin, Mo 

Bellingham, Wash. . . 
Everett, Wash. . . . 

Orange, N. J 

Portsmouth, Va. . . . 
Newport, Ky 



$3923.58 

767.66 

1809. 14 

1190.33 

455-42 

637-31 

280.39 

1180.3s 

1012.35 

1095.53 

577-01 

753-67 

1056.35 

1003.14 

771.62 

997.92 

645.06 

689.39 

558.14 

734.60 
330.02 
324-39 
391-56 
698.29 

405-57 
522.04 



100% 

35-30 

94-78 

70 

25 
40 

23 
100 

90 
100 

50 

70 
100 
100 

75 
100 

70 

75 

65 

87 

40 

40 

50 
100 

55 
80 



$3923-58 
2242.77 
1986.39 
1819.58 
1786.08 
1593-28 
1219.10 
1180.3s 
1149,02 

1095.53 

1088.61 

1076.67 

1056.3s 

1003.14 

1002.49 

997.92 

925-88 

919.18 

858. 14 

844-37 
840.21 
810.97 
783.12 
698.29 
684.96 
676.27 



From this table it will be seen that the highest rate, based 
on estimated real value rather than on assessed value, was 
paid at Everett, Washington, and that the lowest was paid 
at Columbia, South Carolina, and that Boise occupied a 
median position. Considering the fact that Boise occupies 

1 From Financial Statistics of Cities, etc., 191 7, above cited. 



Boise's Educational Problem 



15 



TABLE 8 

Tax Rate and Per Capita Cost of City Government 

(United States Census Statistics of 191 7) 



City 



1. Everett, Wash. . . . 

2. Tulsa, Okla 

3. Elmira, N. Y 

4. Orange, N. J 

5. Stamford, Conn. . . 

6. Niagara Falls, N. Y. . 

7. Knoxville, Tenn. . . 

8. Austin, Texas .... 

9. Colorado Springs, Colo. 

10. Bellingham, Wash. . 

11. Ogden, Utah .... 

12. Jackson, Mich. . . . 

13. Newport, Ky 

14. BOISE, IDAHO . . 

15. Zanesville, Ohio . . . 

16. Aurora, 111 

17. Wihnington, N. C. . 

18. Shreveport, La. . . . 

19. Joplin, Mo 

20. Madison, Wis. . . . 

21. Brookline, Mass. . . 

22. Stockton, Calif. . . . 
27,. Easton, Pa 

24. Charleston, W. Va. . 

25. Portsmouth, Va. . . 

26. Columbia, S. C. . . . 
Average 26 Cities . . 



Rate of Levy of General 

Property Taxes per 

$1000 of 



Assessed 
Valuation 



$50-60 
32.20 
27.27 

23.73 
23.01 
24.99 
31.90 
28.80 
20.62 
51.29 
20.50 
19.90 
25.86 

27.75 

17.20 
69.83 
30.00 
38.75 
38.30 
16.50 
14.80 
40.96 
19.27 
17.92 
18.59 
41.00 
29.65 



Estimated 
True Value 



S25.30 
24.79 
23.73 
23.73 
23.01 
22.61 
22.23 
20.85 
20.62 
20.52 
20.50 
19.90 
19.19 
18.04 
17.20 
16.06 

15-91 
15-50 
15.18 
15.02 
14.80 
12.98 
12.13 
11.72 
11.04 
10.46 
18.19 



Per Capita 
Cost of All 
Govern- 
ment 



$52.18 

53.74 
29.90 
19.40 
31.12 
32.91 
29.06 
35.67 
20.10 
23.00 
21.20 
29.41 
13.00 
19.16 
18.61 
20.83 
17.63 
43.82 
25.88 
44-91 
55.36 

40.93 
13.64 

25.44 
12.26 

25.47 
29.02 



1 6 The Boise Survey 

a much lower position among these cities in point of per 
capita wealth (see Table 7), we should expect her to hold 
a higher than median rank in tax rate if she gave her chil- 
dren average school advantages. We must not fail to see, 
too, that the western cities, with which Boise is especially 
comparable, have a higher rate than has Boise. All together 
this argues plainly that Boise could have a somewhat higher 
tax rate without doing more than other cities of her class 
are doing. 

2, Distribution of Expenditures 

A further question of importance is. How are the city's 
revenues used? In column three of Table 8 above it will 
be seen that Boise's per capita cost of government is very 
much lower than that for most of the cities included in this 
group. In fact, but 5 of the 26 cities pay less per capita 
for government than does Boise. How, then, one may ask, 
does Boise spend her money? 

Figure 3 shows a full statement of how Boise spends each 
dollar of her revenues. From this it will be seen that 46.9 
cents out of each dollar goes to maintain schools, 7.8 cents 
to govern the city, 16.9 cents to protection of person and 
property, etc. 

In these important items of expenditure it is important to 
locate Boise's position among the cities of her class. This 
is brought out clearly by Table 9, which shows for 26 cities 
the per cent of total city expenditures devoted to the three 
important items of education, general government, and 
police protection. 

In expenditure for education Bellingham, Washington, 
holds the highest place, devoting 63.7 per cent of her total 
expenditures to schools; Columbia, South Carolina, holds 
the lowest place, with 20.3 per cent; and Boise the fourth 
place from the top, with 46.9 per cent. In expense for 
government the range is from 14.6 per cent in Tulsa, Okla- 
homa, to 6.4 per cent in Madison, Wisconsin. This figure 



Boise's Educational Problem 



17 



PROTECTION OF 
PERSONe^PffOPERTY/ 
16.94 



H/OHW/JYS 
17.94 



$ 

ONE 



'GENERfiL 
feOVERNMENT. 
7.84^ 

-Sec^TioN ZH 



EDuc/rrioN 

46.44 



Fig. 3. How Boise Spends Its Dollar 

for Boise is 7.8 per cent. As was shown in Table 8, Boise 
spends relatively less on her government than is spent by 
any of these 26 cities. In cost of police protection Boise 
holds the lowest place, devoting only 4 per cent of her total 
expenditures to this item, while other cities range as high as 
16.4 per cent. 

It must be said, then, that Boise spends her income wisely. 
Indeed, the city occupies an enviable position in the matter 
of spending the money which it derives from taxes, and we 



i8 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 9 

Percentage of City Expenditures Devoted to Education, 

General Government, and Police Protection 

(Financial Statistics of Cities, United States Census Bureau, 191 7) 



City 


Per Ceht to 
Education 


Per Cent to 

General 
Government 


Per Cent to 

Police 
Protection 


1. Bellingham, Wash 

2. Everett, Wash 

3. Colorado Springs, Colo. . . . 

4. BOISE, IDAHO 

5. Charleston, W. Va 

6. Easton, Pa 

7. Orange, N. J 

8. Ogden, Utah 

9. Aurora, 111 

10. Madison, Wis 

11. Stockton, Calif 

12. Elmira, N.Y 

13. Zanesville, Ohio 

14. Austin, Tex 

15. Joplin, Mo 

16 NewDort Kv. . . . 


63.7 
56.2 
48.6 
46.9 

46.5 
46.2 

45-3 
44.8 

44.7 
42.8 

41.3 
39-9 
39-4 
37-4 
36.3 
34.6 
34.2 
33-6 
33.6 
32.8 
32.3 
28.4 
24.9 
23.6 

20.3 


8.1 
8.7 
9-3 
7.8 

13-4 
7.6 

7.9 
14.6 

7.4 

6.4 

9-3 

10.8 

10.7 

8.4 
12.0 
12.4 

8.3 
10. 1 

8.0 
14. 1 

I3-I 
9.1 
9.0 
9.4 

7-S 
8.1 


6.1 
6.4 
6.7 
4.0 
9.2 
6.8 
10. 
8.1 
9.8 
5-4 
7-1 
8.5 
9.0 

7.4 
12.5 
II. 8 


17. Stamford, Conn 

18. Jackson, Mich 

ig. Knoxville, Tenn 

20. Tulsa, Okla 

21. Portsmouth, Va 

22. Niagara Falls, N. Y 

23. Shreveport, La 

24. Wilmington, N. C 

25. Brookline, Mass 

26. Columbia, S. C 


6.2 

6.8 
10.7 

9.6 
II. 2 

7.8 
10.9 
IS. 6 

9.1 
16.4 



Boise's Educational Problem 19 

can only advise the people of Boise to maintain that reputa- 
tion, keeping Bellingham's high mark in percentage spent 
on schools and a somewhat higher tax rate, as suggested 
above, as desirable marks yet to attain. 

THE PROBLEM STATED 

Keeping in mind the more modern conception of the 
school, and of the place and function of education in society, 
viz.: that the school is not to be isolated from other social 
interests; that the teaching of reading, writing, and arith- 
metic are not its sole functions ; that education has as much 
to do with real occupations, real civic and social duties and 
obligations, real people, real things, and real conduct of men 
in a real society as it has to do with books and theories; 
and finally that educational opportunities should be avail- 
able for old as well as young, let us set forth the general 
suggestions that are brought out by the above social, geo- 
graphical, and economic facts about Boise. 

1. Boise is a rapidly growing city, (i) She must there- 
fore erect buildings, purchase equipment, develop library 
facilities, and organize her teaching and supervision forces 
with this rapid expansion in mind. (2) She should adopt 
a pay-as-you-go policy and keep bonded indebtedness at a 
relatively low mark. 

2. The population of the city is mainly and increasingly 
of native stock. ( i ) This means that the schools are largely 
free from the educational burden and from the attending 
cost of caring for a large foreign element. (2) This should 
make possible relatively higher standards of cost in other 
lines than obtain in cities with large numbers of foreign 
children. (3) It should also make possible relatively high 
standards of achievement among the pupils. 

3. The city ranks high in young and middle-aged adults 
and low in infant and aged dependants, also low in children 
of school age. ( i ) This means that the city has a relatively 
lighter burden to bear in providing schools, and a relatively 
high earning power to care for the cost, (2) which argues 



20 The Boise Survey 

that Boise could spend considerably more per pupil for 
schools than is spent by the average city of her class and 
still be making no more than average sacrifice to edu- 
cation. 

4. In point of wealth Boise is slightly less than an average 
city of her class but with fair prospect of bettering her 
position. In view of other facts, — the racial homogeneity 
of her people, the relatively small school population, and 
the relatively large percentage of young adults, — this po- 
sition with respect to per capita wealth does not argue 
for low expenditure per pupil for schools. Instead, it 
should argue for a slightly higher than average tax rate for 
schools. 

5. In the matter of illiteracy Boise, though in a highly 
favored section of the country, occupies only a median po- 
sition among cities of her class, and is unquestionably the 
center of illiteracy for the state. This calls loudly for night 
schools and continuation education as a feature of the city's 
school system. 

6. In occupations the city is essentially a residence com- 
munity, but it is located in the midst of a rich undeveloped 
agricultural district and is the political and business center 
of the state. This calls especially for strong agricultural 
and commercial departments as well as for good average 
mechanical departments in the high school. 

7. The city taxes its wealth at a relatively low rate 
for cities of that class. Considering its low per capita 
wealth, one would expect a relatively high tax rate if the 
city means to have as good schools as are maintained by 
other cities. 

8. The city spends a relatively high proportion of its 
income on education. This shows good management and 
indicates that the people of the city want and will support 
a strong constructive educational policy. 

In a word, then, the city is able to have the best, 
and is morally responsible to a wide territory to furnish 
a demonstration of the best that can be worked out in 



Boise's Educational Problem 21 

educational practice in that part of the United States. 
What the city has to show, the extent to which it is exer- 
cising such leadership, and the way it is meeting its edu- 
cational problems, we shall try to answer in the following 
chapters. 



CHAPTER II 

ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 

(Sears) 

THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE DISTRICT 

IN attempting to answer the question, how has Boise met 
and solved her educational problem, it must be kept in 
mind that that problem has not always been the same. 
Boise's educational needs have changed greatly since 1866, 
when the city first received a^ charter, or since 1890, when 
Idaho became a state. Its population has doubled several 
times; illiteracy and the percentage of foreigners have 
greatly decreased; new industries have grown up; wealth has 
accumulated ; and the city has come to occupy a place of in- 
fluence; all of which means that Boise's educational aims, 
and therefore her plans for education, have had to change. 
In 1883 the city Board of Education reported but one school 
building and 351 pupils. At present there are eleven build- 
ings ^ and more than 4000 pupils, the city being laid out in 
attendance districts, as shown in Figure 4. 

Article IX of the constitution of the state of Idaho de- 
clares it to be the duty of the legislature of Idaho ''to es- 
tablish and maintain a general, uniform, and thorough 
system of public, free common schools," and vests the power 
of supervision of the schools in a state board of education. 
Long before this constitution was adopted (1889), however, 
the territorial legislature had enacted many laws affecting 
education, among which was an act (1881) creating the 
Boise Independent School District. The powers of this 
district have since been enlarged, till now, in addition to 

1 One of which is in process of erection. 

22 



Organization and Administration 



23 



wauxiwcn 




fj^Lcmj^aiCtHf 






Map OF 

60/ JE, ID/QHO 

SHOWING LOCm-ION OF SCHOOLS 

AND /1Tr£rVP/J/^C£ D/SFRJCTS 

At ay 491 Si 



HOWTHOiVliirA 



Fig. 4 



the usual corporate powers, the trustees of this district may 
devise their own course of study, select their own textbooks, 
determine the qualifications of their teachers,^ provide 
teachers' retirement funds, old age insurance, and permanent 
disability funds, and fix the length of their school day. 



^ The teachers of Boise are not required to hold a state or county cer- 
tificate. 



24 The Boise Survey 

It should be pointed out here that these powers have been 
granted by the state of Idaho, for the benefit of such of the 
state's schools as happened to be within this district, and 
that these powers were granted to a school district and not 
to a city. As shown in Figure 5 the district boundaries are 
at almost no point coextensive with those of the munici- 
pality. The Board of Education is thus carrying out a state 
function, and is responsible to the state for the proper ex- 
ercise of its powers. Not for the welfare of the people of 
Boise alone, therefore, but for that of the entire state, the 
school policy of the district must be conceived and carried 
out by the board. ^ 



SIGNIFICANCE OF SUCH V^IDE LEGAL POWERS 

It is doubtful whether the powers of any public school 
board in the state surpass the powers of this board. The 
responsibilities of a board must be proportionate to the 
powers it has been granted. Accordingly the people of 
Boise must expect their board to conduct the schools of the 
city in terms of a broad policy which has been constructed 
in the light of the conditions and needs of the large territory 
of which Boise is a natural center. Apparently the city has 
no immediate need for farmers or stock breeders. Yet the 
development of the state, and of the whole Northwest, in 
fact, await the coming of men trained in these fields. It is 
therefore Boise's duty to the state to establish courses in 
agriculture. This merely illustrates the way in which the 
Board of Education must approach its problems. 

While there is little danger of our pointing too emphati- 
cally to the responsibilities which the district has assumed 
in accepting from the state the powers of an Independent 
School District, we must not fail to point with equal em- 
phasis to the excellent opportunities which such wide powers 
provide. The district is free from the possible evils of too 

1 See especially reference to the problem of illiteracy in the state, on 
page 9. 



Organization and Administration 



25 





6 


S 


4 


J 


2 


7 




7 


6 


& 


76 


71 


72 




)8 


17 


W 


7S 


74 


73 




19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


1 


30 


29 


28 


21 


26 


2J 




31 


V2 




-^i 


3S 


36 




6 


S 


t 


3 


1 
2 1 


7 




7 


6 


S 


70 


1 


4 




Id 


n 


76 


7J 




^ 


it 

1 


19 


20 


27 


.?? . 


T- 


A 




30 


2$ 


26 


27 


23 


25 




31 


32 


33 


34 


33 


36 



Soyrn 

Fig. 5. Map Showing Boise's District and Municipal Boundaries 
(Dotted Line Shows City Boundaries) 



26 The Boise Survey 

much state uniformity, as uniformity of textbooks; and from 
state interference in matters of a strictly local character, as 
in the development of continuation courses; and accordingly 
it should find it possible to build up a plan of education very 
thoroughly adapted to the ends they wish to attain. That 
is, by her natural position, Boise is not only responsible for 
providing broad educational leadership for the state and 
adjacent territory, but the state has provided the district 
with almost unlimited power, together with a proper portion 
of state funds, with which to develop that leadership. Within 
her proper financial limitations, then, Boise should become 
the educational experiment station and demonstration center 
for the state. 



THE ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION 

As pointed out above, the machinery for directing the 
schools of the Boise Independent District was devised and 
established by the state of Idaho. The first in authority, 
therefore, is the state; that is, the people of Idaho, who act 
through their constitution and their legislature. The con- 
stitution calls for a system of schools to be supervised by a 
state board of education, and the legislature has consti- 
tuted that board of six members, five appointive and one 
ex officio. The five members are to be appointed by the 
Governor, and the State Superintendent of schools is to serve 
ex officio. This board, through the State Superintendent, 
supervises the schools of the state somewhat minutely, ex- 
cept in the case of independent districts, where the board's 
supervision is slight and somewhat indirect, being limited 
mainly to its power to apportion the state school fund and 
taxes among the counties, to require reports of attendence, 
etc. Similarly the county superintendent serves the schools 
of Boise in a limited way, caring for apportionment of funds, 
payment of tuition by pupils, adjustment of district boun- 
daries, etc., all in accordance with established laws. 

As provided by special charter, the schools of this district 



Organization and Administration 



27 



are managed by a board of six trustees elected at large by 
the people, each for a term of six years. In accordance with 
its rules and regulations the president of the board appoints 
the following standing committees: 

1. Committee on Auditing and Finance; 

2. Committee on Buildings and Grounds; 

3. Committee on Purchasing and Insurance; 

4. Committee on Teachers and Salaries; 

5. Committee on Textbooks, Instruction, and Discipline. 

Under the direction of the board and its committees, the 
following general plan of organization for the schools has 
been developed and is now in operation. At the head, and 
serving as the board's chief executive officer, is the superin- 
tendent of schools, under whom are the general and special 
supervisors, principals, and teachers. These main features 
of the organization, together with other details, are shown 



I Sfcrh Legisfak/r^ 



roe^ 




i 7bx Rjyers i 



BO^RD OF Tf?US7F£S 



\Fi nance 



\SfafeBd.ofEducahbf\ 



\juv9ni/eO>i^ 



\7i-eoit/rer\ 
\RM*ho$in^ \7eocAefs I \lnsfrx/cHon\ 



supe/?iNreA/DeN7\ 



Buildimjlnspechr \ 



W^l 



jPf?/A/C/f^U[ 




i Jechcifory I 



lAsec l3vp€nisot\ 



\0rammar6nde\ / \ TE/^CHEl?3 I 

\PrJmQry6rades \ ^ 
I JanTfors \ 



\firi \ \Mu5/c\ 

1 N^r^^ J 



\CHILDD£N\ 



Fig. 6. Present Administrative Organization of the Schools or the 
Boise Independent School District 



28 The Boise Survey 

clearly in Figure 6, which also indicates the various lines of 
authority approximately as they operate in the system. 

IMPERFECTIONS IN ORGANIZATION 

I. Boise's Plan not Unlike That of Other Cities 

The plan of organization here described is not unlike that 
in effect in many cities of this size. Small boards are de- 
cidedly the rule, though boards of five or seven members 
are more common than are boards of six members. In most 
cases such boards are elected by the people at large for 
three-year terms, and carry on much of their work through 
standing committees of three members. In these respects, 
therefore, Boise is following what appears to be the ac- 
cepted — but, we must add, the traditional — practice over 
the country. 

2. Objections to Standing Committees 

There is no particular objection to the size of Boise's 
board, nor to its tenure and methods of election. There is, 
however, objection to the standing committee method of 
carrying on its work. For nearly a decade no single prob- 
lem has received more serious consideration by our leading 
thinkers and writers on educational administration than 
has the question of how school boards shall conduct their 
business. The outcome of this study is a general agreement 
to the effect that standing committees are in no way helpful, 
and that they are not infrequently a means of mismanage- 
ment and interference with the technical and professional 
functions of expert officers.' As the plan works in Boise, 
little concrete evidence was available to show any evil effect 
upon the schools direct. The committees are definitely 
subordinate to the board, having no general power to act 

1 See Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public School Administration, Chapter IX, 
Houghton Mifflin Company; Hanus, Paul H., School Efficiency: A Con- 
structive Study Applied to New York City, Chapter VIII, World Book 
Company. 



Organization and Administration 29 

on any question. Yet all of the work done by committees 
might, in the judgment of the writer, be better done in other 
ways. For a committee of three busy men to toil through 
the process of auditing the long list of large and small ex- 
penditures which accumulate each month seems extremely 
wasteful of time. Again, the selection, tenure, and salaries 
of teachers, the selection of textbooks, questions of instruc- 
tion and discipline, all are problems whose proper solution 
not only requires time but also a high degree of professional 
skill, such as lay board members usually do not possess. 

Special committees may and frequently should be used 
by the board for examining situations, gathering facts, as- 
sisting in large business transactions, etc., but never should 
questions of any importance be either actually or even prac- 
tically decided by any less than the full membership of the 
board whom the people have chosen to manage the schools. 

Without mentioning all the evils that have been found 
associated with committee methods, it is enough here to say 
that all are a possibility in Boise as soon as even moderately 
weak executive officers are placed in charge of the schools. 
A partial illustration is already at hand. All Boise's ele- 
mentary school principals teach practically full time, and 
so, however strong executives they may be, they are forced 
to neglect many of the duties that ordinarily fall to that 
office. The result is that janitors have come to take orders 
from the building inspector only, who works mainly under 
the direction of the committee on buildings and grounds. 
This is educationally impracticable if not intolerable. One 
principal, when asked why the water was shut off from the 
fire hose, replied, ''I have called the janitor's attention to 
that situation, but he told me that the building inspector 
had ordered him to keep the water closed off." If such an 
order actually was given it was ridiculous, and even dan- 
gerous in case of fire. That the janitor politely or otherwise 
ignored the authority of the principal is a situation that 
should be immediately remedied. 

Boise's committees should be done away with, however. 



30 The Boise Survey 

not only to prevent waste and friction but because there 
are better and safer methods of handling the business. The 
need for a standing committee on auditing and finance would 
disappear if at the beginning of the fiscal year the board 
would adopt a budget and place in proper hands the ex- 
penditure of all funds/ At the end of the year a special 
audit of all accounts by a certified accountant would solve 
the question. 

The employment of teachers should be left solely to the 
superintendent, who would also determine salaries and pro- 
motions in accordance with a policy definitely stated and 
adopted by the board. No board member or committee 
should presume to handle questions of textbooks, discipline, 
and instruction, and it should surely be the board and not 
a part of it that selects sites, adopts budgets, employs archi- 
tects, and erects buildings, and the superintendent and prin- 
cipal who should handle the lesser problems now handled by 
the committee on buildings and grounds. 

This seems to give the superintendent wide powers and 
much to do. That is as it should be. At the present time 
Boise's superintendent has to devote entirely too much of 
his time to the supervision of instruction and has left too 
little for the larger and more important functions of the 
chief administrative officer of a city school system. Boise 
is not a great city, but neither is it a country village. Ac- 
cordingly it should begin to adopt big business and big 
educational methods of operation. 

Further, it may be asked, what is there left for a board 
of education to do if the superintendent is to function so 
broadly? The answer is: (i) legislate for the schools; 
(2) adopt a policy and frequently examine the evidence 
that that policy is being carried out; (3) and administer 
certain laws as required by the state. To illustrate, the 
board must fix the special tax levy; determine tuition rates; 
pass on all proposed extensions of the school system; select 

1 See Chapter XII for discussion and recommendations touching this 
question. 



Organization and Administration 31 

a superintendent when necessary; sanction or veto other 
appointments; select school sites; create a teachers' retire- 
ment fund; take care of bond issues, sales, and redemptions; 
appoint school architects and auditors of accounts; de- 
termine length of school term and dates of opening; estab- 
lish salary schedule and promotion rules; care for school 
elections; pass on purchases of fuel, supplies, and furniture, 
and keep itself fully informed as to the extent and conditions 
of the schools. Innumerable other typical items could be 
added. These are suggested as fully representative of the 
kinds of business that should be transacted by a board of 
education. It is believed that if the board will serve well 
in the capacities suggested by the above items of business, 
it will render the best possible account of its stewardship. 

J. A Weak Plan of Supervision 

A second and fundamental weakness of the plan of organi- 
zation outlined above has just been suggested; viz., the plan 
for carrying on supervision of instruction. In Figure 6 this 
weakness is not fully apparent. Supervision is carried on 
by three sets of officers: general supervisors, special super- 
visors, and in very limited measure by principals. There 
are two general supervisors, one for the grammar grades and 
one for the primary grades, the former being handled by the 
superintendent. When we consider that principals teach 
nearly all their time, and that special supervisors cover only 
a limited portion of the curriculum, we are forced to realize 
that anything like adequate service for the grammar grades 
will call for a very large portion of the superintendent's time. 

4. Duties of a City Superintendent 

It seems worth while to set forth here some of the more 
important functions of a city superintendent of schools, as 
indicated by the best practice over the country at the present 
time. Without attempting to list these functions in any 



32 The Boise Survey 

special order, we would say that the following are of first 
importance: 

1. Entire control of all teachers, principals, supervisors, 
and other special officers (as truant officer, clerical help, 
building inspector, librarian, etc.) having to do with matters 
of instruction. This should mean power of appointment, 
transfer, promotion in rank or salary, and dismissal. He 
should have almost equally wide control over the purchasing 
agent and business manager. 

2. The selection of textbooks and supplies. Decisions in 
all such matters will not be reached without the help of 
teachers and supervisors having special knowledge of the 
needs of the schools. 

3. The development and revision of courses of study. 
Here again for several reasons the intimate knowledge of 
teachers and supervisors will be utilized. 

4. Preparation of the annual budget estimates to be 
passed upon by the board. 

5. Keep the public and the board fully informed. Brief 
but carefully prepared reports of the conditions and needs of 
the schools should be laid before the board at each meeting, 
to the end that the board may legislate promptly and in- 
telligently and keep to a unified school policy. Certainly a 
city as large as Boise should publish an annual report of its 
schools. 

6. Furnish professional leadership and stimulate industry 
and enthusiasm among all teachers and officers, keeping the 
essential aims of education before his staff of assistants. 

No superintendent of schools in Boise can live up to the 
large possibilities suggested by these general headings and 
devote the time now being devoted to detailed supervision 
of instruction. Furthermore, it is too expensive a program 
for the city to use its highest-paid official largely as a super- 
visor of instruction, however excellent his work in that 
capacity may be. 

The weakness of the present system is further evidenced 
by the attitude which principals show toward the methods 



Organization and Administration 33 

now used. There seems to be a general feeling that there is 
a lack of coordination in the work of the schools and that 
much of the work now being done by the general super- 
visors does not get results, for the reason that it is not 
properly followed up by the principal or some one on the 
ground. 

An adequate plan of supervision for the schools of Boise 
would exchange the present system for the following: the 
superintendent would be a general supervisor of all work, 
operating largely, though not exclusively, through others; 
there should be a supervisor of primary work with the en- 
tire city for a field, much as at present; there should be one 
principal for the three schools of Central, Lincoln, and 
Hawthorn districts, who would devote full time to adminis- 
trative and supervisory duties; in similar fashion one prin- 
cipal could handle Longfellow and Whittier schools; all 
otiier schools should have principals devoting from half time 
in the smallest to full time in the largest schools to super- 
vision; finally there should be supervisors of the special 
subjects of art, physical training, play, music, manual train- 
ing, and domestic science. 

This would make the principalships of the Boise schools 
attractive positions. At present the principal, except in the 
high school, is merely the head teacher, and is not thought 
of, nor is he treated by his fellow teachers, as a principal. 
Live young men will not remain long in such positions, as 
Boise's history clearly proves. The present policy will in 
course of time place old, worn-out teachers at the head of 
the schools, whereas such positions should be in the hands 
of the aggressive, professionally alert type which is aspiring 
to larger usefulness in the profession. 

5. Improper Control of Building Inspection 

A third weakness of the plan of organization, perhaps a 
minor one, is the present status of the building inspector and 
of janitors. The building inspector should be appointed 



34 The Boise Survey 

and supervised by the superintendent,^ and the janitors, 
though they may work largely under the supervision of the 
building inspector, should certainly be expected to respond 
promptly to any request from the school principal. An effi- 
cient janitor is one who is capable of carrying out orders 
pertaining to the sanitary condition of the building and of 
attending to the innumerable little tasks of mending, dis- 
tributing supplies, shifting furniture, etc. A janitor who 
does such work well will not find time to dictate the policy 
of the school. 

6. Attendance Machinery Weak 

A fourth weakness of the organization is found in the 
machinery for handling attendance problems. At present 
no attendance officer is provided. In case of truancy the 
child is reported to the probation officer of the juvenile 
court of the county and is, in a sense, haled before that 
court even though the offense is very slight. In other words, 
the boy is treated as if he were a confirmed delinquent. 

It is one of the most important functions of the school 
to find among its children any evidences that point toward 
delinquency and to eliminate those forces before they have 
time or opportunity to develop. The school is a socializing 
agency and should provide machinery for handling unsocial 
conduct. The school should always have the juvenile court 
to fall back upon in difficult cases, but court machinery is 
not satisfactory as school machinery. 

A far better plan for Boise would be to add to the staff an 
assistant nurse with the title of "visiting teacher," ''home 
visitor," or ''supervisor of attendance." We all recognize 
that the schools are very often so conducted as actually to 
stimulate delinquency. It would be the function of this 
office to study the school and the home conditions to the 
end that such forces might be eliminated. The less of the 

1 Boise has a "City Building Inspector" who is responsible for inspecting 
school buildings as well as all other types. The part-time building in- 
spector employed by the schools supplements the city inspector's work. 



Organization and Administration 35 

police and court idea and the more of the leading, teaching, 
nursing idea we can get into our schools, the more positive 
and constructive will their program of training be. 

7. Health Supervision Inadequate 

A fifth weakness, scarcely even now to be rated as a minor 
one, is the inadequate supervision of the health of the chil- 
dren. As will be shown later in this report, Boise has its 
health problems, and though the present nurse work is ex- 
cellent in quality, it is far from adequate in extent. 

A good solution of this problem for the present would be 
to make the present nurse supervisor of health and attend- 
ance, give her a full-time assistant nurse whose work it 
would be to visit homes where health advice is needed or 
where special cooperation between school and home is nec- 
essary, and who in carrying on such work would serve 
as attendance officer. With some clerical assistance this 
would give the schools much better health supervision 
and bring the management of attendance problems di- 
rectly under the superintendent's control, where properly it 
belongs. 

These five criticisms of the plan for administering the 
schools of Boise are presented, not so much because of ap- 
parent friction among the officers and teachers, as because 
of the general waste of energy due to misplacement of 
authority, with its consequent inefficiency. No evidence was 
found to show that the board or its committees have de- 
liberately or carelessly infringed upon the rights of the 
superintendent. It is believed, however, that much of the 
work now done by committees would better be done by the 
superintendent, and the remainder by the board as a whole. 

At this point it should be noted that the minutes of the 
board are so very brief that they reveal little of the history 
of the board's operations. No discussion is ever reported, 
however important it may have been. There is little to show 
the kind or extent of information placed before the board 



36 The Boise Survey 

by the superintendent/ and little to show the process by 
which the schools' policy is kept up to date. This is not as 
it should be. Such minutes need not be a stenographic re- 
port of all that is said at the meeting, but they should fur- 
nish a brief, clear report, not only of all questions handled, 
but of important discussions as well. 

A RIGHT PLAN OF ORGANIZATION 

The above criticisms and proposals have been made in 
the light of the best practice in city schools throughout the 
country, and they are supported quite as fully by the 
fundamental principles of administrative organization " 
wherever these apply, in business, commerce, or education. 
Big business has made its way by means of a highly cen- 
tralized management, and, while the management of a 
school system may not be a case parallel in every detail with 
an industrial institution, wherever the essential principle of 
centralized control has been carefully worked out in edu- 
cation it has brought results. 

With these facts and principles in mind the plan of 
organization shown in Figure 7 is suggested for the schools 
of Boise. 

The board of trustees is elected by the people to carry 
out the laws and orders of the legislature and the state board 
of education. No board committees are provided for. The 
superintendent of schools is the chief executive officer of 
the board. It is his duty to develop an educational policy, 
which, when adopted by the board, he will carry out. In 
doing this he will be given wide freedom within the limits 

1 As an illustration a very full typewritten report touching a number of 
important problems was rendered to the board on February 8, 1919. The 
secretary's books show little evidence that such information and recom- 
mendations had been laid before the board. 

2 An abundance of facts describing present practice are so easily available 
that it seems unnecessary to include tables to substantiate the statements 
made. See a recent report by the United States Commissioner of Education : 
Current Practice in City School Administration, United States Bureau of 
Education Bulletin, 1917, No. 8; Cubberley, E. P., Public School Adminis- 
tration, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1916. 



Organization and Administration 



37 



I State Legislature j | Tax Rayers ofBo/se \ \StafeBe/.ofE'ducation \ 




B04JPD OFEDUCar/ON 



J UPEPINT€NDENT\ 



ypier^t e^Pt/rcftosin^a^eiri' \ 



Primary tSuperv/sof 




\r<i of Health 



I Secretory \ 

\SpeciQ/ Supe, 



Supf. aFB/c/9i€'Groi/nd\ 



I Me(/ica/ Supervisor \ 



I Janliorj \ 



T£-/^C/i£r/?J 



\ch/ldc?£:n\ 




'isifingTeacherX 



Fig. 7. Desirable Plan of Reorganization 

of a carefully made budget. In terms of this policy he will 
choose his own staff of assistants, determine the function 
and salary of each, supervise the arrangement of facilities 
and the kinds of education to be offered, and keep his board 
fully advised of the progress being made. When he fails to 
do these things satisfactorily, the board will not take over 
part of his functions, but it will replace him by a man in 
whom the board has confidence. 

At present the clerk of the board is serving, and should 
continue to serve, as purchasing agent, and before long must 
have an assistant either for bookkeeping or to serve as stock 
clerk and messenger. At present some temporary part-time 
student assistance should be provided. Aside from the 
severe brevity of minutes, the work of the clerk is being 
carried on in an orderly fashion. It is possible for any one 
at any time to see what becomes of the board's money, what 
materials are on hand, etc., by consulting his books and 
files. 



38 The Boise Survey 

In Figure 7 it will be noticed that a line runs from the 
superintendent to the clerk and purchasing agent. This 
line is intended to indicate that the purchasing agent is defi- 
nitely subordinate to the superintendent and takes all orders 
and requisitions from him. As clerk he is secretary of the 
board. Such overlapping of duties is inevitable, and the 
board should carefully define all the functions and relation- 
ships here involved, not because there is a lack of harmony 
or cooperation at present, but as a safeguard for the future. 
One weakness of school organization, and hence of adminis- 
tration and supervision, over the country in general lies in 
the fact that the functions of school officers are not clearly 
defined, and too often they are not clearly conceived by 
either the board or the officers themselves. 

By Figure 7 the office of building inspector — which is 
by no means clearly defined at present — is changed to that 
of superintendent of buildings and grounds. This officer 
should be selected by the superintendent and, in addition to 
the general upkeep of grounds and buildings, he should 
supervise the work of the janitors and, together with the 
principal, recommend as to their appointment and dismissal. 
The janitor should take orders from the principal without 
question, though the general management of janitor service 
should be in the hands of the building superintendent. 

It will be noticed too that Figure 7 changes the office of 
school nurse to that of medical supervisor, who, through 
an assistant, is also to be in charge of attendance and home 
visiting. The lines connecting with the city board of health 
are intended to suggest that there should be constant and 
systematic cooperation with that board, and, while no place 
is left for contact with the juvenile court, in extreme cases 
the supervisor of attendance should cooperate with that 
court. 

This plan calls for several marked changes in the present 
practice. It is believed to embody the best principles of 
organization and administration and at no point to con- 
flict with what has found successful expression in practice. 



Organization and Administration 39 

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

The Boise Independent School District has been created 
by the state of Idaho. The trustees of this district are state 
officers to whom wide powers have been granted. Special 
attention is called to the opportunity for unhampered de- 
velopment and to the large responsibility which the state 
has thus imposed upon the trustees of the district. Some- 
thing of the extent to which Boise has borne this responsi- 
bility and utilized this opportunity will appear in the follow- 
ing chapters. 

Boise's administrative organization has been described 
and five important points of weakness pointed out, as 
follows: 

1. The committee method of handling the business of the 
trustees is out of keeping with modern administrative theory 
and practice; 

2. The placement of almost the entire supervision of in- 
struction in the hands of the superintendent with one assist- 
ant, together with making all principals ^'head teachers" 
and leaving the superintendent too little time for important 
executive work, inevitably results in poor supervision and 
inadequate administration ; 

3. Lack of proper limitation of the duties of the building 
inspector, with a consequent wrong relationship between 
principals and janitors, creates serious trouble; 

4. A wrong t3^e of machinery for handling the problems 
of attendance tends to stimulate rather than to discourage 
delinquency; 

5. Inadequate health supervision cannot but result from 
the present arrangement. 

To correct these weak points in the system it is recom- 
mended: 

I. That the rules of the board be so revised as to elimi- 
nate all standing committees, with a consequent enlarge- 
ment of the executive powers of the superintendent, the in- 
troduction of a budget system of finance, and a definitely 



40 The Boise Survey 

outlined policy touching the main problems that have con- 
stantly to be met by the superintendent; 

2 . That the idea of teaching principals be done away with, 
that the superintendent be freed from any save general 
supervision of all the schools, and that more special super- 
vision be introduced; 

3. That the title of building inspector be changed to that 
of superintendent of buildings and grounds, that he shall 
work under the direction of the superintendent rather than 
under the board or one of the board's committees, and that 
he shall have general supervision of all janitor service; 

4. That attendance problems shall no longer be referred 
to the probation officer of the juvenile court, but that the 
school shall devise its own machinery for meeting that prob- 
lem by adding an assistant, a "visiting teacher," to the 
office of the medical supervisor; 

5. That the present nurse be made supervisor of health 
and attendance and be given an assistant. 

With these changes it is believed that Boise would have 
a thoroughly modern administrative and supervisory ma- 
chinery. The change would likely cost somewhat more, but 
it would undoubtedly result in a large increase in efficiency 
throughout the system. 



CHAPTER III 
THE TEACHING STAFF 

(Sears) 

IN Chapter I we have attempted to set forth the general 
aims and purposes of education in Boise as dictated by 
the essential social, economic, and intellectual forces which 
characterize the city. In Chapter II we have described and 
tried to evaluate the administrative machinery by means of 
which these educational aims and purposes are to be realized. 
Our next question is. By what kind of force is this machinery 
being operated? 

However wisely a city may have chosen its educational 
aims, and however satisfactorily it may have erected the 
chief administrative structure of its school system, if it fails 
to provide a strong and progressive staff of teachers and 
principals through whom to work, its aims and development 
can never be satisfactorily realized. 

SIZE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE STAFF 

At present Boise^s staff consists of 128 supervisors and 
teachers, distributed through one high school and nine ele- 
mentary school buildings as follows : 

I city superintendent of schools 

1 primary supervisor for Grades i to 6 

2 special supervisors, for art and music respectively 
I nurse or medical inspector 

I building inspector (part time) 

1 high school principal 

10 elementary teaching principals 

34 high school teachers 

74 elementary school teachers 

2 special grade teachers 
I librarian 

41 



42 



The Boise Survey 



According to the rules of the board of education the 
superintendent * 'shall nominate for appointment all prin- 
cipals, supervisors, and teachers, and assign them to their 
various positions, and recommend salaries to be paid, sub- 
ject to the schedule adopted. He shall also recommend the 
dismissal of teachers who are found to be unworthy of their 
positions." 

In the past, reports indicate that the teachers' committee 
assumed much more responsibility in the development of 
the teaching staff than is true at present. It cannot be too 
strongly insisted that the board as a whole, and not one of 
its committees, should scrutinize the superintendent's 
recommendations of teachers. 



7. Slow Growth of Boise^s Staff 

One important measure of a city's success in the develop- 
ment of its teaching staff is seen in the frequency with which 
changes take place from year to year. A decade of this fea- 
ture of Boise's history is shown in Table lo, from which 
several interesting facts are brought out. 

TABLE 10 

A Decade of the Growth of Boise's Teaching Staff Compared 
WITH Growth in Enrollment 







Number Employed 


Number of Changes or Additions 
Made 


Total 


Year 


Super- 
visors 


H. S. 
Trs. 


Grade 
Trs. 


Total 


Super- 
visors 


H. S. 

Trs. 


Grade 
Trs. 


Total 


Average 
Enroll- 
ment 




M. 


W. 


M. 


w. 


M. 


W. 


M. 


W. 


M. 


W. 


M. 


W. 




1909-10 
1910-11 
1911-12 
1912-13 
1913-14 
1914-1S 
1915-16 
1916-17 
1917-18 
1918-19 








I 
2 
5 
5 
5 
5 
4 
4 
3 
4 


II 
13 
14 
14 
19 
17 
18 
17 
IS 
12 


10 

13 
13 

;i 

18 

\i 

19 

22 


I 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
2 
2 


84 

87 
82 

% 

80 
83 


92 
los 
118 
123 
131 
124 
120 
120 
119 
123 






I 
I 
3 

I 
I 


5 
3 
4 

I 
8 

2 

I 

4 


3 
5 
2 
4 
7 
2 
2 
7 
9 
12 


I 
2 

I 
I 

X 

I 
I 


17 

25 

26 

^8 

7 
13 
14 

23 
28 


26 
34 
36 
41 
32 
19 
19 
27 
39 
46 


306s 
3328 
2809 
3196 
3317 
3207 
3132 
3221 
3193 



The Teaching Staff 43 

First, it appears that the size of the staff has just kept 
pace with the increase in the school population. During 
this decade there has been some fluctuation in the enroll- 
ment figures from year to year, but the actual increase in 
average school enrollment has been 25 per cent. The in- 
crease in the teaching staff has been slightly above 25 
per cent. 

It must not be forgotten that the modern curriculum of 
today requires a relatively larger teaching force than did 
the best curriculum of a decade ago. An increase of several 
per cent in Boise's teaching force as compared with increase 
in enrollment would therefore have occasioned no surprise. 
In fact, such was to have been expected. 

2. Staff Becoming Unbalanced in Favor of High School 

The second point of interest in this table is seen in the 
relatively rapid growth of the high as compared with the 
elementary school staff. The gain for the high school is 
more than 38 per cent, while for the elementary school it 
is less than 18 per cent. These figures are significant when 
studied in comparison with enrollment figures. Boise's 38 
per cent increase in high school staff has had to meet only 
a 31 per cent growth in high school student population, 
while her 18 per cent increase in elementary staff has had 
to meet a 21 per cent growth in elementary school enroll- 
ment. In other words, these figures indicate that Boise's 
high school policy has been one of expansion and that the 
opposite has been true of her elementary school policy. 

J. Staff Should Have More Men 

A third point of interest in this table is a comparison of 
the number of men and women employed from year to year. 
For the high school the balance between men and women 
has been fairly satisfactory, even during the war period. 
The same, however, cannot be said for supervisors and ele- 
mentary teachers. 



44 The Boise Survey 

At present there are but two men employed in the ele- 
mentary schools, one a manual training teacher, the other a 
principal. The latter is resigning because the opportunity 
for professional growth is too slight where practically all 
the principal's time is devoted to teaching. 

It would pay Boise well to employ at least five men for 
principalships and as many more as vice principals for 
upper-grade positions. The influence of that number of 
men among the children of the elementary schools of the 
city would be excellent. This is not to argue against the 
value of women principals. Everywhere women have held 
high rank in these positions, and the excellence of their 
work is acknowledged. It is a mistaken policy, however, 
that permits that excellence altogether to rule out the mas- 
culine influence from the younger children. 



4. Too Rapid Change of Staff 

A fourth point in this table, viz., to what extent is the 
staff changing from year to year, is more clearly shown in 
Figure 8, where the figures of Table 9 have been reduced 
to per cents. The full length of the bar represents 100 per 
cent of the staff for the year indicated on the left. The 
white portion of the bar indicates the per cent of the pre- 
vious year's staff that had been retained. The remainder of 
the bar represents the per cent of the staff made up of new 
teachers. The per cent represented by the gray portion 
changed because of resignations, dismissals, deaths, etc., 
and the black portion represents the per cent of change due 
to increase in the size of the staff. 

In 1909-10, 28.2 per cent of the teachers in Boise had 
never taught there before, 21.1 per cent of these new 
teachers came as a result of resignations, etc., while 7.1 per 
cent represent the increase in the size of the staff. Reading 
down through the diagram, it at once becomes apparent that 
Boise's teaching staff is rapidly becoming less stable, and a 



The Teaching Staff 



45 



Percent P 



I909-IO 
19(0-11 
1911 -12 
1912-13 
1913-14 
1914-15 
1915-16 
1916-17 
1917-18 
1916-19 



\0 20 3p 40 50 



60 90 lOO 



Percenf 6 



lO 



1 — r 

20 30 



X 




60 70 eo 90 



Fig. 8. Showing Per Cent of Changes in Boise's Teaching Staff, 
1909 to 1919 

White shows per cent of staff retained. Gray shows per cent of change due to resignations, 
dismissal, etc. Black shows per cent of change due to increase of staff. 

Study of the figures does not convince one that the war 
fully explains this tendency. Is it low salaries or unpleas- 
ant conditions of work, or is it unsuccessful teachers, that is 
causing this larger and larger amount of shifting in Boise's 
staff? Whatever its cause, it is a tendency that must not go 
too far. Boise is in a position to demand a fair degree of 
successful teaching experience as a prerequisite for candi- 
dacy to teaching positions in her schools. This diagram 
seems to indicate that Boise has been training an increas- 
ingly large number of teachers for positions elsewhere. 



THE TRAINING OF BOISE's TEACHERS 

The city of Boise is not conveniently located with respect 
to good facilities for the training of teachers, but, being the 
capital and largest city of the state, and somewhat at- 
tractive for reasons of climate, it should be able to attract 
teachers of good training and experience. Table 1 1 shows in 



46 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 11 
Kinds and Amount of Training Received by the Teachers of Boise 





No. of Teachers 


Kinds of Training 


Elementary 


High School 


Total 


High School Course Only 

High School plus Some Advanced Work 

in Normal or College or Both .... 

High School plus Full Normal Course . 

High School plus Full Normal plus 


6 

17 

34 

7 
i6 

2 


4 
I 

4 

5 
i8 

I 


6 

22 

35 
II 


High School plus Some Normal plus 
Full College 


5 


High School plus Full College Course . 

High School plus Full Normal and Full 

College Courses 


34 
3 







some detail what has been the schooHng of the present staff 
of Boise's teachers. 

From this table it will be seen that 6, or about 5 per cent 
of the 115 teachers included in the table, have had only a 
high school education. Just half of the elementary teachers 
have had high school plus a full 2 years' course in the nor- 
mal school, and 16 more have had 4 years in college in 
place of the normal school course. Slightly more than half 
of the high school teachers have had full high school and 
college courses. 

Table 12 presents these data in terms of "years in school 
above elementary grade." From this it will be seen that 
a very large percentage of the elementary teachers have 
had between 5 and 6 years of training, and that between 
7 and 8 years is equally popular with high school teachers. 
The average and median periods of training for elementary 
teachers are approximately 6 years, while the same figures 
for the high school group are not far short of 9 years. In 



The Teaching Staff 



47 



TABLE 12 
Years of Training Received by Boise's Teachers 







No. of Teachers 




Elementary 


High School 


Total 


3 50-. and i mo. to 4 j^ 

4 " "I " " 5 

5 " " I " " 6 

6 " "I " " 7 

7 " " I " " 8 

8 " " I " " 9 

9 " " I " " 10 

10 " " I " " II 

11 " " I " " 12 


r 

t 

( 

( 

c 


6 

7 
S3 
13 
13 

2 

I 


2 
2 

II 
6 

7 
4 

I 


6 

7 

35 

15 

24 

8 

7 

5 

I 


Average Teacher's Training 


6.3 yrs. 


8.8 


7.0 


Median Teacher's Training 


6 


8.5 


7-1 



1905-06 nearly 50 per cent of Boise's teachers were nor- 
mal school graduates, and 25 per cent were college gradu- 
ates.^ The first of these figures is slightly higher, the second 
slightly lower, than are similar figures describing Boise's 
present staff. In the light of figures for other cities, how- 
ever, the extent of the training of Boise's teachers is little, 
if any, below the average.- 



I, Training in Service 

An equally important question is. Do the teachers keep 
themselves in training? In answer to a questionnaire given 
out to all teachers, asking how many summer terms they 
had attended during the past five years, it was found that 

1 See Annual Report Idaho Department of Public Instruction, 1905-06. 

2 See Coffman, L. D., Social Composition of the Teaching Population, 
New York, 191 1; also recent reports of city school surveys. 



48 The Boise Survey 

49 had attended one or more summer schools, and 15 had 
taken extension courses. That is, approximately one half of 
Boise's teachers have been carrying forward their training 
during their vacation time. Of these, 23 had attended but 
I summer term; 18 had attended 2; 3 had attended 3; 3 
had attended 4; and 2 had attended 5. 

When we consider that the state has supported a summer 
school at Boise for the past several years, it would seem 
that a larger number of teachers should have reported at- 
tendance at at least one summer term in five years. It is 
not unreasonable for a board of education to expect its 
teachers to attend summer school, to read, travel, and by 
other means keep up with their profession. It is not enough 
to enter the teaching profession with a good education: 
that education can be kept good only by constant study. 
A lawyer, a merchant, a physician who ceases to study 
soon loses his income. The same principle should apply to 
teachers. 



EXPERIENCE AND TENURE OF BOISE's TEACHERS 

The question of whether Boise employs experienced or 
inexperienced teachers is well answered by the fact that: 

77 of Boise's 82 elementary teachers have taught outside of Boise 

50" " 82 " " " " " " Idaho 

28 " " 33 high school " " " " " Boise 

6" " 33 " " " '' " " " Idaho 

In other words, 6 per cent of the present elementary 
school staff, and less than 15 per cent of the present high 
school staff, entered the Boise schools without previous 
teaching experience. This should lay no special burden 
upon the city, though there is no need for Boise to employ 
any inexperienced teachers. 

Table 13 describes quite fully the kind of teaching ex- 
perience Boise's teachers have received to date. The wide 
variety of work which this represents is undoubtedly an 



The Teaching Staff 



49 



TABLE 13 

Teaching Experience of Elementary and High School Teachers 

IN Boise 



Service in 


Number of Teachers 


High School 


Elementary 


Total 


High School Only 


12 

6 

8 

3 

4 


7 

3 
49 
II 

3 
4 
3 

2 




Principalship and High School .... 
Elementary and High School .... 
Elementary, Principalship, and High 

School 

Elementary School Only 

Elementary and Principalship .... 
Elementary and Supervisorial .... 
Elementary and Kindergarten .... 
Elementary and Supervisorial .... 
Other Combinations 


6 
15 

6 

49 
II 

3 
4 
3 

2 



asset which helps the schools to coordinate the work of 
various departments. 

In length of experience Boise's teachers rank high in com- 
parison with other cities. In a report of a government sur- 
vey of the schools of Elyria, Ohio, the average teaching ex- 
perience of the teachers of 26 different cities is shown. In 
this list there are but 8 cities where teachers on the average 
have taught longer than have the teachers of Boise.^ The 
median teaching experience for the teachers of Cleveland is 
10 years/ for St. Louis it is approximately 8 years ,^ while 
for Boise it is 10.3 years. One fourth of the elementary 
teachers of Boise have taught for 16 years or more, and one 
fourth have taught 5 years or less. 

1 Educational Survey of Elyria, Ohio. United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion, Bulletin 1918, No. 15. 

2 Cleveland Education Survey, "The Teaching Staff," Walter A. Jessup. 
Cleveland Foundation, 1916. 

3 Survey of the St. Louis Public Schools, Part I; Charles H. Judd. 
World Book Company, 1918. 



50 The Boise Survey 

For the high school group the amount of teaching experi- 
ence is from 3 to 29 years, almost exactly the range for 
elementary teachers, but with an average of only 8.5 years, 
or nearly 2 years less than the average for elementary 
teachers. 

The average teaching experience of Boise's teachers may 
be raised somewhat by the fact that principals are included. 
The principals are practically full-time teachers, however; 
so they should be included. 

If a teaching staff is young and inexperienced, the city 
has a serious task of supervising and training. If the staff 
is relatively old, and has had long experience, it is likely to 
mean that new ideas are not filtering into the system as 
rapidly as they should and that conservatism will dominate. 
On the average, Boise might wish for slightly less rather 
than more teaching experience for her teachers. 

THE AGES OF BOISE's TEACHERS 

Boise's teachers range in ages from 22 to 56 years. The 
average for the 63 elementary teachers and principals re- 
porting this item is 34.4 years, while the average for 33 
high school teachers is 32.6 years. The middle 50 per cent 
of elementary teachers are from 29 to 37 years old, and the 
same figures for the high school group are 30 to 34. While 
Boise has no teachers who should be retired on account of 
age, yet, according to the extensive study by Coffman, above 
cited, these ages are relatively high. 

These figures are of great importance to Boise in view of 
the provision the district has made for retirement, old-age 
insurance, and disability funds for the care of its teachers. 
A recent state enactment makes it possible for an indepen- 
dent district employing 30 or more teachers to create a 
Teachers' Retirement Fund from which may be paid $40 
per month to any male teacher sixty years of age and to 
any female teacher 55 years of age. Men who have taught 
for 35 years, 15 of which have been in the schools of Boise, 



The Teaching Staff 51 

and women who have taught 30 years, 15 of which have been 
in Boise, are eligible to receive such income. The fund is 
also available for old-age insurance and for providing in- 
come in case of permanent disability. In terms of this law, 
Boise has made wise and generous provision for its teachers. 



I. Bearing of Age Statistics upon Administration of 
Boise's Insurance and Disability Funds 

In carrying out this law it is obviously to Boise's advan- 
tage to employ teachers who still have before them a large 
expectancy of service. In doing this there are two dangers 
which the city should carefully avoid. One is the danger of 
adding to the staff new teachers who are well along in years 
and will soon become pensioners; the other is that of em- 
ploying teachers who are so very young in years and ex- 
perience that they do not enter the service with proper 
equipment. Teachers who are very young and inexperienced 
and teachers who have had more than ten or twelve years of 
teaching experience are equally poor risks from the stand- 
point of the service they will render in the classroom. One 
is apt to be untrained but will have enthusiasm and capacity 
to learn; the other has the knowledge and skill but is apt 
very soon to become over-conservative. The younger teacher 
is a far better risk from the standpoint of insurance but not 
for immediate service; the older teacher is better from the 
standpoint of immediate service but a poor insurance risk. 
When a teacher is employed, she becomes an asset to the 
city to the extent of the number of years' service she has 
yet before her, and a liability to the extent, not of her present 
salary, but of all her future salaries plus the insurance and 
pension cost. The insurance and pension parts of the lia- 
bility become relatively large as ages are relatively high. 
Since Boise's age line is high at present, care in the selection 
of teachers should be exercised, and a careful study made 
of what sort of financial burden each average year of age 
added to the staff will mean to the city. 



52 The Boise Survey 

SOCIAL COMPOSITION OF BOISE'S TEACHING STAFF 

It is important to know what kind of teachers one is em- 
ploying, not only from the standpoint of training and ex- 
perience, but also from the standpoint of race and place of 
birth. A teacher's personality is not all made up in school. 
It is in very large part the product of home and community 
life outside of school. If we wish to know what ideas, tra- 
ditions, and social viewpoints are to determine the general 
atmosphere and methods of the classrooms, we must ask 
where the teachers are from. If all the teachers had been 
reared in Boise and were of Boise parentage, and in addition 
had had all their training in Boise, we could confidently 
expect that the outcome of such a system of inbreeding 
would be harmful. Each generation would become more 
and more provincial and the city more and more isolated. 
Such an extreme situation is not possible in Boise, since the 
city offers no teachers' training facilities. 

These facts are shown clearly in Table 14. 

First of all, it is clear that American traditions dominate 
the Boise schools. Secondly, it is especially noticeable that 
Idaho traditions alone do not, there being practically no 
parents, and only 13, or less than 12 per cent of the teachers, 
who were born in the state. Certainly it cannot be said 
that Boise employs too much home talent. It is interesting 
that the Pacific Coast states contribute less than do the 
New England states, and that the largest percentage of the 
staff are from the North Central states. More of the present 
staff are from Iowa than from Idaho; Kansas, Nebraska, 
Illinois, and New York also are well represented. 

If these figures are tjq^ical for other cities and towns in 
the state, they may suggest that Idaho should try to speed 
up the development of her institutions of higher learning. 
For the city they surely guarantee against any sort of edu- 
cational tendency toward provincialism. Unquestionably, 
they indicate a wide variety in training as well as in social 
traditions. For an inland city there can be no better 



The Teaching Staff 



53 



TABLE 14 

Birthplace of Boise's Teachers and of the Parents of Boise's 
Teachers 



Place of Birth of Teachers and Then: 
Parents 


Fathers 


Mothers 


Teachers 


United States 


88 

4 

i8 

36 

14 

5 

4 

I 

20 

6 


94 

I 

7 
13 

34 

24 

3 

I 

3 

19 

3 




Idaho 

New England 

Middle Atlantic 


13 
5 

7 
20 
42 


East North Central 


West North Central 


South Atlantic 


East South Central 




West South Central 


I 

19 

5 

4 


Mountain 

Pacific 

Europe 

Canada 


Per cent from U. S 

" " " Europe 

" " " Canada 


77.2 

17-5 

5.3 


81.0 

16.4 

2.6 


96.5 
3-5 
0.0 



guarantee against isolation than to have a school staff so 
selected, providing too large a percentage of the staff is not 
changed each year. 

BOISE's salary SCHEDULE 

The final test of a city^s ability to choose its own teachers 
freely is its capacity to compete in the open market. Climate 
and social opportunity may attract, but they will have little 
holding power against greater financial returns elsewhere. 
It is the business of the superintendent to run the schools 
with as few teachers as is compatible with the best methods 
for training the city's children, and to employ his teachers 
at the least possible cost to the city. First, it must be de- 



54 The Boise Survey 

cided what kind of schools are wanted. An old-fashioned 
curriculum requires fewer teachers than are necessary for 
handling a modern curriculum. This is true not only be- 
cause there are fewer and more formal studies in the old 
curriculum, but also because the more formal the work the 
more pupils a teacher can manage. 

J. Basis for Determining Salary Schedule 

Before examining Boise's salary schedule, therefore, we 
should ask how large a teaching force and how large a sal- 
ary budget the city should have. The size of the staff will 
depend largely upon the number of pupils to be taught. At 
present Boise employs 119 teachers, exclusive of supervisors, 
and has an average enrollment of 3193, or slightly better 
than one teacher for each 28 pupils enrolled. 

Since the schools have been sadly disturbed by war and 
epidemics during the last year or two, it is thought that 
figures for 191 5-1 6, as published by the United States Com- 
missioner of Education, will be a better basis for the study 
of this question. From this source, therefore, Table 15 has 
been worked out to show the standards for western cities 
with which Boise can properly be compared. 

From this table it appears that Boise occupies a median 
position until column 3 in the table is examined. Among 
these 15 western cities the range is from an average of 23.7 
to 31.6 pupils per teacher. Boise, with 25.8 pupils per 
teacher, occupies a position somewhat better than that of 
the average for the group of cities. In pupils per supervisor 
Boise occupies a slightly more favorable position in the 
table, being fourth in the group of 1 5 cities. When it comes 
to principals, however, Boise, together with Salem and 
Stockton, is at the bottom of the list. A careful study of 
this table shows that Boise, on the whole, occupies a posi- 
tion far below the average. 

It will be recalled from Table 8 that Boise's tax rate is 
relatively low, and therefore that the city is not compelled to 



The Teaching Staff 



55 



TABLE 15 

Number of Pupils in Average Daily Attendance per Teacher, per 
Supervisor, and per Principal, in Schools of Western Cities 



City 


Pupils per 


Teacher 


Supervisor 


Principal 


Salem, Oregon 

Tulsa, Oklahoma 

Sioux Falls, South Dakota .... 

Leavenworth, Kansas 

North Yakima, Washington .... 

Riverside, CaHfomia 

Alameda, CaHfomia 

BOISE, IDAHO 

Trinidad, Colorado 

Phoenix, Arizona 

Bellingham, Washington 

Everett, Washington 

Great Falls, Montana 

Stockton, California . 

WaUa Walla, Washington 


23-7 
24,4 

24.5 
24-5 
24.7 

24.9 
25.0 
25-8 

26.5 
27.0 
27.4 
27.8 
28.0 
28.3 
31-6 


2610.0 
630.1 
406.4 
594-0 
661.2 

1509-5 
368.4 
511-3 
411. 8 

1323-0 
612.0 

1070.5 
561.5 

1176.7 
664.7 


no principal 
420.0 
316. 1 
792.0 
440.8 

1509.5 

526.2 

no principal 

344-8 
1323-0 
333-8 
713-6 
842.2 
no principal 
531-8 


Average of cities 


26.3 


874.0 


674.4 



occupy such a position among cities of her own class. It 
was pointed out above that Boise's staff had barely kept 
pace with the city's growth in population. To occupy the 
best position in this table Boise should have at least 129 
teachers, 7 supervisors, and 9 principals, instead of 119 
teachers, 6 supervisors, and no principals, as reported by 
the United States Commissioner of Education.^ 

To add to Boise's unfavorable position, it must be pointed 
out that the city has no ungraded rooms. This means that 
all pupils, however difficult to classify, must be taught in reg- 

1 Boise has lo elementary school buildings, in each of which there is 
a head teacher who is designated as principal. The title is mainly an 
empty one, as the principal has practically no time for supervision. 



56 



The Boise Survey 



ular classes. This is a wasteful method, particularly in the 
larger schools. Further, Boise has all her manual training 
work for the grades done in one building by one teacher, 
and the work in physical education and directed play in the 
elementary schools is not adequately provided for. 



2, Boise's Present Salary Expenditures 

What Boise is now expending for teachers' salaries is 
clearly shown in Figure 9. Salaries of elementary teachers 
— including principals — range from $600 to $1900, while 
in the high school the range is from $1100 to $2200. The 
median and average salaries for elementary teachers are 
$980 and $1013 respectively, while similar figures for high 
school teachers are $1250 and $1360. 

In evaluating these salaries it is worth while to consider 
certain facts gathered by Dr. George D. Strayer, President 
of the National Education Association, who sent out a ques- 
tionnaire to the teachers of the country, asking, among 
other things, for a statement of the ''Annual amount spent 
for personal living expenses: room rent, board, clothes, 
car fare, medical attention, etc.," and the "Annual amount 
spent for recreation, books, magazines, travel, professional 
advancement, etc.," for the year 191 7-18, and the estimate 
of the same expenses for the year 191 8-19. Without giving 







^\£-i£M^A/yajpy sc/^ooiJ 


J HIGHSCHOdL \ 


















































2200 




^Li 1 






















































/6SO 


























































I600 


■■■■ 








i3do^^M 








































' 






fJSO 


■■■ 










'/'2y6^^ 
















































A500 












/2/oM 






























-1 














- 




I400 


■■ 












/20M 
















































/,ioo 












Esa 


■ 




















. 




I2SO 




































■ 
























//OO 


■ 




W-'I»7*1 




B 


• 


















f«^^ 


■ 




































• 
















■ 


6^11 


































~~' 




"~ 


■ 






















" 


.HA^ 


k 


4 


s 


e 


7 


6 





H 


11 


/2 


a 


/4 






17 


/d 


IS 


20 2J 


22 


23 


24 




yva 


/ 


2 


3 


4 


S 


6 


7 





Fig. 9. Distribution of Teachers' Salaries in Boise, 191 8-19 



The Teaching Staff 57 

the details of the answers given by the teachers of Boise, it 
is enough to say that the median amount spent for living ex- 
penses in 191 7-18 — men high school teachers excepted — 
was $750; and for recreation, professional advancement, 
etc., the median amount was $125 for elementary teachers 
and $225 for all high school teachers.^ The figures esti- 
mating similar costs for 191 8-1 9 were in nearly every case 
higher. 

Surely all will agree that the amount devoted to recrea- 
tion and professional development is not too high if the 
teachers are expected to keep abreast of the times. If 
from the median elementary teacher's salary of $980, $750 
is spent for living, and $125 for recreation, etc., the teacher 
has very little left as insurance against old age and dis- 
ability. In fact, society cannot wisely afford to have its 
teachers operating on such a narrow financial margin. 

5. Salaries and the Rising Cost of Living 

Figure 9 shows how Boise's salary schedule has been 
raised to offset the rising cost of living during the last three 
years. The disappearance of the very low salaries is offset 
by an increase in the number of higher salaries. This in- 
crease is well stated in terms of median and average salaries, 
as shown in Table 16. 

From this table and from Figure 10 it appears that Boise 
has tried to meet the increased salary demands that have 
so rapidly forced themselves upon us since the beginning of 
the war. Whether Boise has done enough in this line it is 
difficult to say. After a somewhat thorough study of 
teachers' salaries and costs of living in Idaho, Dr. E. A. 
Bryan, State Commissioner of Education, makes the state- 
ment that for the year 191 7-18 the increase in salaries 
amounted to 6%, while the increase in cost of living was 
17%. Of the 72 teachers on Boise's 191 7 staff who were 
retained, 52 received salary increases ranging from $45 to 

1 Thanks are due Superintendent C. E. Rose for the use of these figures. 



58 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 16 

Showing Increase in Median and Average Salaries in Boise, 
1916 TO 1919 



Class of Teachers 


1917 


1918 


1919 


Med. 


Ave. 


Med. 


Ave. 


Med. 


Ave. 


High School 

Elementary School . . . 


$1000 

870 


$1096 
856 


$1200 
885 


$1233 
907 


$1250 
980 


$1366 
1013 



$325 and averaging $82.94 each; while 20 received no in- 
crease at all. For the entire 72 teachers this meant slightly 
less than a 7% increase. For the 52 whose salaries were 
raised it meant an increase of 10.4%. Even assuming that 
Dr. Bryan's figures describing increase in cost of living are 
too conservative, as, offhand, most people would think, 
Boise has still fallen far short of her obligation to her 
teachers. 



4. Boise's Salaries Compared with Those of 
Other Cities 

What Boise has done in comparison with other western 
cities is a further basis for judging the adequacy of her sal- 
ary schedule. This is brought out clearly in Table 17, 
which shows the maximum and minimum salaries of ele- 
mentary and high school teachers and principals and of 
superintendents for 15 western cities, together with the 
per cent of increase in these salaries during the last four 
years. 

This table shows that the range of minimum salaries for 
elementary teachers is from $700 to $1200, with $945 as 
the average. The maximum salaries for elementary teachers 



The Teaching Staff 



59 



H/6H 5CH. ELCMENTapPV SCHOOLS 1 


Tp^ 


#32/ S/JLARY 


veaf? 


1 


23 


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rt 


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74 a 


.... 


ie 


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Fig. 10. 



Distribution of Elementary and High School Salaries in 
Boise for the Past Three Years 



range from $1025 to $1500, with $1249 ^s an average. For 
high school teachers the range in minimum salaries is from 
$1000 to $1560, with $1196 as an average; while in maxi- 
mum salaries the range is from $1200 to $1920, with $1590 
as the average. 

In all teachers' salaries Boise stands above the average 



6o The Boise Survey 

for these 15 cities/ A similar examination of the figures 
showing principals' salaries shows that Boise is well above 
the average for high school principals but below the average 
for grade principals. For superintendents Boise's salary is 
also above the average for the group of cities from which 
figures could be obtained. 

As compared with other cities, therefore, it must be said 
that Boise occupies a fairly favorable position when we 
consider the salaries to be paid in 1919-20. When we study 
the other columns in the table, however, we see that Boise 
has not kept pace with the average city in the per cent 
of increase granted during the last four years. Boise has 
granted substantial increases, however, so that at present 
we may say that, in the light of present-day standards, 
Boise's salary schedule is fully adequate. 

In the light of the several arguments here presented, and 
of all our facts taken together, however, we would urge Boise 
to assume a larger place of leadership among western cities 
in this very important matter. We cannot demand that 
teachers keep up in their profession unless we offer them 
reasonable financial returns. In offering to their teachers 
a bonus of $60 to $100 for successful work done at summer 
schools, Boise has taken a commendable step forv/ard. With 
such rewards and with adequate salaries, Boise should be 
able to choose her teachers from where she will, and besides, 
she will stimulate other cities to put their schools on a 
sound financial basis. 

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

In respect to Boise's teaching staff the following points 
are of interest, and many of them deserve careful study by 
the city's school authorities: 

1. Authority for the nomination of teachers in Boise is 
very properly vested in the superintendent of schools. 

2. The size of Boise's teaching staff has for the past 
decade barely kept pace with the increase in school popu- 

1 See also Boise's place among cities of the same population. 



The Teaching Staff 



6i 



TABLE 17 

COMPARATRTE SaLASY SCHEDULES IN WESTERN CiTIES FOR YeAR I919-20, 

Sho^^ng Per Cent Increase in Last Four Years ^ 









Teachers 


Principals 


Superintendent 


City 


Min. 


Max. 


Per Cent 
Increase 
in Last 
4 Years 


Min. 


Max. 


Per Cent 
Increase 
in Last 
4 Years 


Salary 


Per Cent 
Increase 
in 4 Years 




Min. 


Max. 


Min. 


Max. 




Elementary Schools 
Reno, Nev 




$900 
1200 
960 
840 

900 

IS 

840 
1000 
1000 

HOC 

850 
1 140 

700 

looo 


$1200 
1400 
1260 
1290 

1025 
1400 
1202 
1260 
1150 
1200 
1300 
1150 
1500 
1 100 
1300 


16.6 

40.0 

28.5 
7-1 
42.5 
40.0 
38.8 
53.8 
60.8 
13.3 

31. S 

14-3 
22.0 


47-3 
34.7 
30.3 

Itl 

41.4 
32.6 
59.7 
50.0 
71.9 
22.8 
20.0 

III 


$1300 
1 24 
1500 
1500 

1 140 

1500 
1230 
1600 

1560 
1500 
1450 


$1500 

00 
1500 
2160 

1650 
1900 
1750 
1770 
1600 

2100 
1500 
1600 


30.0 

25;o 
13.6 

14.9 

11.8 
33-3 

^5*3 
33.3 
22.1 


1S.3 
47.9 

12. 1 

29.6 
10.6 
33-3 

II. 4 
13.3 
28.0 


$4000 
3750 
2800 
3SOO 

4500 
3100 
3000 
3400 

3000 
4000 
3700 


21 2 


Albuquerque, N. Mex 
Cheyenne, Wyo. . . 
Everett, Wash. . . 

Fargo, N. Dak. . . 
Great FaUs, Mont.2 
Trinidad, Colo. . . 






92.0 

0.0 

12.5 

(decrease) 

25.0 

5.0 


Bellingham, Wash. . 
PocateUo, Idaho . . 
Blackfoot, Idaho . . 
Nampa, Idaho . . . 




6.2 


WaUa Walla, Wash. 
Stockton, Calif. . . 
Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 
BOISE, IDAHO . 




00.0 
12.5 
II. 2 


Average 


945 


1249 


32.0 


35-5 


1428 


178s 


26.6 


22.0 


3522 


19-3 



High Schools 



Reno, Nev. . . 
Cheyenne, Wyo 
Albuquerque, N. Mex 
Everett, Wash. 
Fargo, N. Dak, 
Great Falls, Mont 
Trinidad, Colo 
Bellingham, Wash 
Pocatello, Idaho 
Blackfoot, Idaho 
Nampa, Idaho . 
WaUa WaUa, Wash 
Stockton, Calif. . 
Sioux Falls, S. Dak 
BOISE, IDAHO 



Average 



1200 
1 140 
1320 
1020 
1000 

IIOO 

1000 
1140 



(1200) 



1500 
1440 
1500 
1500 
1600 
1900 
1750 
1440 



1300 
1250 
1200 
1560 
1200 
1300 



1196 



1500 
1450 
1500 
1920 
1800 
1850 



1590 



20.0 
21.9 
52.5 
27.5 
II. I 
16.6 
25.0 
26.6 



15.4 
36.4 
38.8 
25.0 
14-3 
18.7 
45.8 
15.2 



(20.0) 



73-3 
35-9 
33-3 
30.0 
33-3 
23.0 



29.9 



76.4 
45-5 
44.0 
23-1 
50.0 
21.6 



32.6 



(2600) 
(2000) 
(2800) 
(2600) 
(2650) 
(3120) 
(2100) 2 
i860 I 2400 
(2200) 



(3200) 
(2700) 2 
(3600) 
(2800) 



2654 



(3.3) 
(23.4) 
(80.6) 
(7.1) 
(20.5) 
(24.8) 
(16.6) 



16. 



(22.2) 



(23.1). 

(No raise in 3 years) 
(16. I) 
(10.7) 



23.0 



1 Thanks are due the superintendents of schools in the following cities for the facts here 
presented. 

2 Figures for IQ18-19. 

* Bellingham and Stockton not included. 



62 The Boise Survey 

lation. Its growth has not been as great as is demanded for 
the handling of a modern curriculum. These statements 
apply much more particularly to the elementary than to 
the high school. 

3. While the high school has continued to employ a fair 
percentage of men teachers, there have been, and still are, 
practically no men in the elementary schools. To give a 
proper sex balance to Boise's teaching staff, there should 
be at least five men principals and as many more men vice- 
principals. 

4. There is a tendency in recent years toward an in- 
creasing number of changes in Boise's teaching staff. This 
is a tendency that can easily go too far, if it has not already 
done so. 

5. Boise is without facilities for training her own teachers 
and so must give special thought to the training of teachers 
while in service. The summer school, reading-circle work, 
occasional professional lectures, conventions, and teachers' 
meetings should be liberally drawn upon for such training. 

6. As compared with other cities, Boise's staff has about 
an average amount of training. About one fourth of the 
grade teachers are under-trained. 

7. Boise employs few inexperienced teachers, and should 
not have to employ any. 

8. The length of teaching experience for Boise's teachers 
is greater on the average than is common in other cities. 
This is a point to be watched in developing a staff. 

9. Boise's teachers average somewhat older than is com- 
mon in other cities. This should be carefully guarded 
against in all new appointments, not only because of the in- 
creased insurance and pension liabilities which it creates, 
but because it does not mean the best service. 

10. From the standpoint of race and birthplace Boise's 
teachers are a very cosmopolitan group. This is an asset if 
the staff does not change too rapidly. 

11. Boise is not maintaining as large a teaching staff in 
proportion to pupil population as is common in other western 



The Teaching Staff 63 

cities. Ten to fifteen teachers and principals added to the 
present staff would not place Boise ahead of the best cities 
in this respect. 

12. Boise's salaries are much too low when judged in 
the light of the present cost of living. When judged by sal- 
aries paid in other cities, Boise's salaries are up to standard, 
though they are not among the highest. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE CURRICULUM 

(Sears) 



THE Child Labor Act of Idaho provides ample protection 
for children under 14 years of age, and up to 16 years 
of age for those who have not learned to read and write 
the English language, and who have not received instruction 
in spelling, English grammar, geography, and arithmetic. 
The State's Compulsory Education Act applies to all chil- 
dren between the ages of 8 and 18 years who have not com- 
pleted the 8th school grade. The Boise Independent School 
District utilizes the juvenile court machinery for carrying 
out the provisions of these laws, in so far as the teachers are 
responsible for their execution. 

These laws are designed not merely to protect the physical 
well-being of the state's children, but also to provide a time 
for instruction and training. The Boise Independent School 
District has taken over from the state the task of training 
all the children within the jurisdiction of the district, and 
has provided the necessary equipment for giving every child 
a minimum of 12 years of instruction, beginning normally 
with the age of 6 years and ending with the age of 18 years. 

During this period of 12 years the Boise schools are offer- 
ing what is commonly offered in the elementary and secon- 
dary schools over the country. No attempt is made to 
offer kindergarten or junior college training, though it is 
possible for high school students to carry on some post- 
graduate study if they wish. There may be no pressing 
demand for kindergartens in most parts of the city, but, as 
will be shown elsewhere in this report, there are many and 

64 



The Curriculum 65 

important reasons why a substantial junior college should 
be developed at Boise. 



WHAT A CURRICULUM IS 

Just what the program of training for Boise, or for any 
given city, should include is most difficult to say. To decide 
upon the content of a curriculum is to give practical ex- 
pression to our conception of "what education means," 
"what studies are of most worth," "the relation of learning 
to citizenship," and many other questions which have 
puzzled philosophers as far back as Plato and Confucius. 

Without attempting a concise philosophical definition of 
what a curriculum is, it is believed that the following state- 
ments express the best thought on the subject at the present 
time: 

1. A curriculum is a body of information and exercises (physical, 
social, aesthetic, moral, intellectual, etc.) to be utilized in the train- 
ing of children. 

2. The materials and exercises so used are chosen from among 
the facts and processes known to have value to society. (Society 
is composed of children as well as adults.) 

3. There is vastly more useful information and there are vastly 
more useful activities available for curriculum purposes than can 
be used. Hence the necessity for selecting. 

4. Each bit of information and each exercise should be selected 
for a certain desirable and well-defined purpose, which purpose 
will be better served by that information or exercise than by any 
other. 

5. Information and exercises must be well balanced with respect 
to the essential recognized intellectual, moral, political, occupa- 
tional, aesthetic, and phy^cal values in life. In other words, the 
curriculum must not be one-sided. 

It will be noticed that such a curriculum calls for action 
as well as for knowledge. We are now recognizing that the 
past has over-emphasized the factual or bookish type of 
training and under-emphasized the physical and social 
types. The present conception of education calls for a 
reinstatement in the curriculum of the "do" side of life. 



66 The Boise Survey 

The test of good subject matter today is social utility, — 
social, not in a narrow but in a broad sense. Personal cleanli- 
ness is as much a social as it is an individual virtue. Society 
wants its members to be physically strong and economically 
competent. It also wants each to make whatever intellec- 
tual or social contribution possible. A successful group is 
made up of successful individuals, and for the schools the 
so-called conflict between the individual and the social is 
entirely without point. 

The necessity for selecting from the many socially useful 
facts and processes is ever present, because as time passes 
invention and discovery cause the development of new needs, 
hence new values arise. It is the function of the school to 
detect these new values and to find a place for them in the 
curriculum. The war has called for a more thorough un- 
derstanding of citizenship. It has insisted that we mean 
something definite when we say ^'My country." Our present 
task, then, is to work over our subject matter on civics and 
history with a view to giving place to these new values. 
This merely illustrates how the school must keep up a select- 
ing and sorting-out process if it is to have a modern 
curriculum. 

In making a curriculum, e. g., in selecting subject matter, 
nothing is more important than that we should have a clear 
aim. The modern sciences of psychology and sociology have 
shaken down some of the older aims, as "mental discipline," 
"breaking the will," "training the senses," etc., and given 
us a clearer understanding of the laws of learning, and of 
educational values. This new knowledge applied to educa- 
tion makes it possible for us to answer society's urgent de- 
mand that the school shall meet the specific definable needs 
of the times. 

Our fifth point calls for a many-sided curriculum. The 
traditional school exercised the child's memory, but seldom 
his hands, his eyes, or his reason. It taught him wise say- 
ings, but little about how to manage his own or his com- 
munity's affairs. The modern curriculum must be expanded 



The Curriculum 67 

to the end that the child may learn something of all the 
aspects of his present and future life among his fellows. 

In Chapter I we have presented a brief discussion of the 
many aspects of life in Boise, which are involved in the 
making of the city's school policy and from which this cur- 
riculum material must in a measure be drawn, and there we 
suggested certain problems. which the curriculum must face. 
Here let us repeat that the whole life of Boise, — its occu- 
pations, its social life, its political life, its intellectual life, — 
all are to be kept in mind as rich sources from which the 
materials of the curriculum are to be brought together. 
Furthermore, the institutional life of Boise must become a 
real laboratory for the schools. The state capitol, the city 
hall, and the courtrooms of Boise can and should be utilized 
in the teaching of civics. The city health department should 
be drawn upon in the teaching of hygiene, etc. 

THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM IN BOISE ^ 

With these principles in mind, let us enumerate the sub- 
jects taught in Boise's elementary schools and later examine 
the content of those subjects. In the first grade we find 
reading, language, hygiene, phonics, nature study, music, 
art, and physical education. In Grade 2 are added arithme- 
tic and spelling. In Grade 3 one school offers work in 
mechanical arts in addition to the studies offered in Grades 
I and 2. Grade 4 adds history and geography and drops 
phonics. Grade 5 adds manual training and domestic 
science. These studies continue through Grade 6 and to 
the middle of Grade 7, when geography is dropped. Grade 
8 drops reading and spelling and in the middle of the year 
domestic science and manual training, and adds general 
science and algebra. 

This entire offering of the elementary schools is made 
clear by Figure 11, which shows all that a child may study 
in each of the grades. There is some slight variation from 
this in a few schools. 

1 For discussion of the high school curriculum, see pages 229-237. 



68 



The Boise Survey 



SUBJeCT: effflU 

RE/JD/AI^ 

PHONICS 

H^NDWRITim 

/QRITHMEnC 

SPELLINO 

GRAMMAR 

U^NOU^E 

GE06R/7PHY 

HISTORY, CIV/CS 

PHYSIOLOGY 

/nmuALTPfliNm 

DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

mTURESJUDY 

MUSIC 

ART 

PHYSICaLTRfflNINB 

6ENER/JL SCIENCE 

mOEBR^ 


i 


Jl 


III 


IV 


V _ 


VI 


VII 


v/// ' 








= 


s 




s 


s 


- 






^ 


s 




s 


s 


_ 






M 


^ 




s 


s 


5 






^m 


■^ 




^ 


■■i 


■H 
















^ 



Fig. II. Boise's Elementary School Curriculum by Grades 

Only five of the nine elementary schools offer the entire 
eight years' work. One school offers but five years' and 
three schools but six years' work. All the manual training 
and domestic science that is taught is taught in the Central 
School. It is with some slight inconvenience, therefore, that 
all the studies suggested in Figure ii are available for all 
the children of the district. 

In kinds of training offered, then, we may say that all 
the traditional subjects are well represented, while art, music, 
domestic science, manual training, and nature study add 
the newer content. To the customary courses Boise has 
added algebra and general science. Whether these were 
intended primarily as introductory high school subjects or 
not, that would seem to be the only service that algebra 
could render. As is shown elsewhere, a large percentage of 
Boise's pupils enter high school, though large numbers of 
these drop out at the end of one year. In other words, Boise 
is no exception to the rule that upper-grade children need 
studies that will introduce them to life as well as to high 
school and later to college. Algebra has little value for the 



The Curriculum 69 

boy who goes no more than one year to high school. It 
does not equip him for a professional career nor does it for 
a career in a trade. It is therefore fair to say that Boise 
should offer several prevocational courses to meet the more 
pressing needs of children who are about to end their formal 
schooling. It is believed that a broad knowledge of our 
great industries, skill in mechanical construction, tool proc- 
esses and technique, mechanical drawing, etc., would make a 
greater contribution, if properly taught, than would algebra. 
General science would be in line with this group of sug- 
gested subjects and so is a commendable part of the present 
offering. 

Perhaps until Boise's buildings are better adapted to a 
real intermediate school or junior high school plan of or- 
ganization the expense of putting in shop courses might be 
large. With the new building now being erected it would 
seem possible to work out such a plan. If all or most of the 
1000 children of Grades 7, 8, and 9 could be put into one 
building, then a widely varied curriculum such as would 
mark a great advance in the city's schools could be offered. 
Some modification of a few of the old buildings might be 
necessary, but the commission fails to discover any perma- 
nent or even serious present difficulties in the way of such a 
program. 



WHAT A PRINTED COURSE OF STUDY SHOULD CONTAIN 

A printed or typewritten course of study is primarily a 
handbook for teachers and school officers. Its function is 
to systematize and coordinate the work of the schools. This 
can be done only when each teacher knows the part she is 
to play in the sum total of the school's program. The out- 
line must therefore give her not only the general plan of her 
own work but the place of that work in the larger plan as 
well. If she is teaching 5th grade reading, she should know 
what the schools propose to accomplish not by the 5th grade 
reading alone, but by the entire course of 8 years as well. 



70 The Boise Survey 

What has been accomplished, what is yet to be done, what 
am I to do, are questions which the printed outline must 
answer for her. 

To be useful, a printed course of study should contain the 
following materials: 

1. A brief, clear statement of the aim of each study and of the 
specific aim of each year's work in that study. The language used 
should not be so general as to be useless. To say that the aim of 
teaching reading is ability to read readily is entirely worthless unless 
there is an understanding of what "read readily" means. 

2. A brief outline of the subject matter and exercises to be 
covered by years or terms. There should be many suggestions as 
to how to supplement the texts and manuals to be used. 

3. A statement (quantitative where possible) of the work to be 
accomplished, not only in amount of ground to be covered, but of 
the quaUty of work as well, — not only how much matter is to be 
read but the rate of reading, the ability to get the thought from 
the printed page, etc. In this particular subject the Thorndike, 
Gray, and other standard tests make possible a very clear statement 
of what is to be accomplished. 

4. A statement of the amount of time that should normally be 
devoted to the study and recitation of each subject. 

5. Innumerable brief suggestions as to the manipulation of 
materials, the use of devices, and the management of the class in 
study and recitation. 

The outlines should be brief and written in simple language, and 
above all, they should be in constant use by teachers. 



BOISE'S OUTLINE OF COURSES 

Boise does not have a printed course of study (a high 
school course is in preparation) but uses mimeographed 
sheets which each teacher may place together in a loose-leaf 
folder. In some respects these outlines meet the standards 
just suggested. The outline for reading states the aims, 
means, and ends of the course, and quotes the Starch, Gray, 
and Courtis standards for rate of reading. At many points, 
however, the aims of courses are not stated, or are stated 
in a vague, general way. In many cases helpful suggestions 
are wanting, the outline of subject matter is' inadequate or 



The Curriculum 71 

similar to the textbook, and too little supplementary ma- 
terial is suggested. 

I. The English Courses 

As will be shown later, Boise devotes more than two fifths 
of the time of the elementary schools to the study of Eng- 
lish. Phonics, reading, spelling, writing, language, and 
grammar are the subjects taught: phonics in the first four 
grades, reading in the first seven, spelling in the second to 
eighth inclusive, grammar in the seventh, and language in 
all grades. The outlines for phonics and reading are brief, 
but the plan and suggestions are good. The amount of 
reading material seems rather more limited and somewhat 
less varied than it should be, particularly for the upper 
grades. The work outlined for spelling is excellent, except 
that very much more emphasis is placed upon the use of 
rules in spelling than is warranted. Recent investigations 
indicate that most of the time put on spelling rules is lost 
so far as training in spelling is concerned. The course out- 
lined shows that attention has been given to most of the late 
investigations in this field. It is the writer's opinion that 
spelling could be dealt with much less formally in the 
seventh and eighth grades, though in this some difference of 
opinion exists. The work in language and literature suggests 
plenty to do, but offers altogether too little help as to how 
to do it. It also stresses the formal aspects of oral and 
written language. Language is rarely the most successful 
part of a curriculum. It is so easy to talk commas, quota- 
tion marks, capitals, paragraph form, etc., that we often 
understress easy, natural expression. An expert teacher 
could follow Boise's outline and do good work, but an in- 
experienced teacher would surely teach too much form. 

2. The Sciences 

Nature study is taught in the first four grades, geography 
in Grades 4 to 7B inclusive, physiology and hygiene in all 
grades, and general science in Grade 8. The subjects cover 



72 The Boise Survey 

the usual materials and in the order followed in most modern 
school systems. 

In the early grades the natural phenomena close at hand 
are utilized quite effectively; weather observations are made 
and recorded, the sun, the moon, star groups, winds, and 
storms are studied, as are streams, land and water forms, 
and the plant and animal life of the community. The ma- 
terials and exercises outlined for nature-study work are 
especially good. Again, however, there is a lack of helpful, 
stimulating suggestions to teachers as to how best to utilize 
the many facts and observations suggested. The geography 
material outlined is available in any good text on the sub- 
ject, and aside from an occasional reference to local situa- 
tions one wonders why a text would need to be supplemented 
by such an outline. To be useful it should suggest the use 
of many books, maps, pictures, advertising materials put 
out by railroads and industrial firms, etc., which are not 
mentioned in the text. It should suggest many devices, 
plans for field study, home observations, etc. It is that sort 
of material that supplements and enriches the ordinary text- 
book. 

The outline for physiology and hygiene as a manual of 
directions is wholly inadequate. Many excellent things are 
suggested, however, as will be shown in a later chapter, and 
there is reason to think that the work in the schools is of a 
good grade. Specially noteworthy is the work suggested for 
the establishment of right habits of living. Clean teeth, 
care of eyes, and ventilation are emphasized, and on the 
social side equal effort is made to teach the importance of 
clean streets, proper disposal of garbage, safeguards against 
epidemics, etc. Teachers cannot too often be reminded 
that the principle "learn to do by doing" applies nowhere 
more fully than in the teaching of hygiene and civics, two 
subjects intimately related at many points. Bacteriology 
is a large word for small children, but no study offers a more 
satisfactory source for hygiene material that is wonderful 
and also practical in its bearing upon health. 



The Curriculum 73 

J. Manual Training and Domestic Science 

Manual training and domestic science are taught in 
Grades 5 to 8B inclusive. The outlines for this work are 
very inadequate. In fact, they meet practically none of 
the standards we have set above for printed courses of study. 
A bare topical outline is of use, but it is not enough. These 
subjects are of the very greatest importance in the ele- 
mentary training of children and, being new, they should be 
fully outlined and every possible help given for their hand- 
ling in the classroom. 

4. History and Civics 

History and civics are taught in all grades except 7A. 
The work is very informal and incidental in the first years: 
the celebration of holidays, stories and poems of primitive 
life in America, stories of heroes of ancient times, and myths 
and legends touching all civilizations the world over. Grade 
6B emphasizes Greek and Roman history and 6A the coming 
of European peoples to America. Grades 7B and 8 are de- 
voted to American history and civics. The course as out- 
lined has much to commend it. While the outlines are not 
equally well developed for the different grades, it is clear that 
the aim of history teaching in Boise is to give the child a 
sense of the past and how that past has gradually built up 
the present. The pupil will see the peoples at work in their 
homes, occupations, schools, and churches, as well as at war, 
and will know something of local history, which is properly 
emphasized. Many of our best schools are utilizing the 
present industrial life to a larger extent in the beginning 
years than is done at Boise, and that is the writer's prefer- 
ence. The course as outlined, however, is commendable. 
The work in civics is also well planned. The formal aspects 
stand out rather clearly, but suggestions for their proper use 
by teachers make the course a good training for citizenship. 



74 The Boise Survey 

5. Mathematics 

Arithmetic is taught in Grades 2 to 8B inclusive, and 
algebra in the final half year. In Grade i, number is studied 
incidentally, the aim being to give the child some familiarity 
with actual number situations and gradually to develop a 
number vocabulary. Later in the year the pupils develop 
some familiarity with the use of the written symbols, the 
meaning of which they have learned by experience. In 
Grade 2, arithmetic becomes a formal subject and systematic 
training is provided. The work outlined for this grade is 
excellent. There seems to be little barren memory grind and 
much actual number experience. The amount of work to be 
accomplished is definite, and the outline offers helpful sug- 
gestions for handling it. Grade 3 continues the use 
of number experience, with larger emphasis upon abstract 
number work. The aim is complete mastery of all addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division combinations 
through the table of 8's, reading and writing numbers of 
four places, and familiarity with certain arithmetical terms. 
Similar clearly stated aims are set forth for the following 
grades, and many excellent suggestions are made for carry- 
ing on the work. From the start constant use is made of 
standardized tests. 

The work in algebra follows a text and aims merely to 
introduce the class to the simple fundamentals. For pupils 
who go on to high school and college the work may be useful. 
For those who do not, the time could be used to better ad- 
vantage if it were devoted to a study of business arithmetic, 
business forms, keeping accounts, short methods for com- 
puting interest, etc. Very few people use algebra, but nearly 
every one must become familiar with the simple forms of 
business practice. 

6, Music and Art 

Music and art are taught throughout the entire eight 
years and are given a fair proportion of time. The courses 



The Curriculum 



75 



in music are very fully outlined, and ample suggestions for 
directing work are given. The plan of work is well in accord 
with the plans in use in our better school systems. The art 
work is similarly well planned, and the applied work of the 
upper grades is especially well worked out. The suggestions 
to teachers are not adequate, with the present limited amount 
of supervision. 

7. Physical Training 

The work m physical training is given to all pupils 
through the entire eight years. While it is well planned, not 
so much can be said for what is actually accomplished in the 
schools. Supervised play should have more attention in all 
the schools, as should positive drills, callisthenics, and 
apparatus exercises. Much need exists for real supervision 
of this work. 

TIME ALLOTMENT, OR THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE 
OF STUDIES 

There are two other angles from which we wish to view 
Boise's curriculum. First, from the standpoint of the time 
devoted to the various studies, and second (in the following 
chapter), from the standpoint of what is going on in the 
classrooms and the results being obtained. 

In many of the recent school surveys careful study has 
been made of time allotment, and the results reported are of 
interest in showing the consensus of opinion over the coun- 
try, touching this question. Table 18 shows the largest, the 
average, and the smallest amounts of time respectively de- 
voted to the various classes of the upper half grades in 
Boise. 

The wide variability in allotments as shown in this table 
is very striking. One first-grade class in reading devotes 900 
minutes per week to the subject, while another class, sup- 
posed to do exactly the same work, reported but 300 min- 
utes per week. Similar differences will be found all through 
the table. 



76 



The Boise Survey 



00 



00 

1 

O 


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to 


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O 


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o o 

CO to 




:Sg;8 

ro M 


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■■■■%l%% 


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^%8^K8 




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cg;^s>i?;^8 




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<N t-00 lO O <N vo ro 

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t 

c 


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i 


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C. 

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6 



The Curriculum 



77 



It is, of course, desirable that there should be variation. 
No one allotment would suit the needs of all schools and 
classes, but the extent of difference shown by this table 
raises a question which Boise's teachers and supervisors 
must try to answer. These differences are brought out even 
more clearly in Table 19, which shows the number of min- 
utes per week devoted to the subject of spelling by each 
teacher of the subject in each of the grades in Boise. For 
comparative purposes as well as in fairness to Boise, similar 
data for the schools of Oakland and Salt Lake City are in- 
cluded in this table. From these figures we read that i 
second-grade teacher in Boise devotes 200 minutes per week, 
4 devote 150 minutes per week, i devotes no, 5 devote 100, 
etc., to spelling. A mere glance at this table brings to light 
a problem which school people must face. We want elas- 
ticity in the management of children, but there can be no 
justification for the wide differences shown in these tables. 

Using the average time allotment in each subject as a 
basis. Figure 12 shows approximately how the entire eight 
years' time of the elementary school pupil in Boise is di- 
vided up if he takes all the subjects offered. 



PEBCENT .; 


READING 


17.2 


PHONICS 


2.5 


WRITING 


4.7 


SPCLLINB 


S 9 


L/}N6umE mo GRatnmflRiz.i 


aRITHMCTIC 


15 3 


atSEBRa 


3.0 


HISTORY i^ND CIVICS 


9.0 


GEOeRiJPHY 


4.7 


PHYSIOLOGY/^nO HYGIENE 


3 2 


r^firuRE STUDY 


1.6 


GENERAL SCIENCE 


23 


DOMESTIC SCIENCE 


1.6 


t^dNUat TRAINING 


1.7 


MUSIC 


43 


aRT 


4fl 


PHYSICAL EDUCariON 


J.I 


PERCENT <; 




Fig. 12. Allotment of Time among the Various Subjects of the Ele- 
mentary School Curriculum 



From this it will be seen that the three R's still dominate 
the schools. In Figure 11, history and civics, physiology 



TABLE 19. Showing Distribution of All Classes in Spelling in 
Oakland, Salt Lake City, and Boise, with Respect to the Grade 
AND THE Amount of Time Spent on the Subject ^ 





Oakland 


Salt Lake City 


BOISE 


Minutes 


Grade 


Grade 


Grade 




2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


2 


3 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


225 and up 
220 . . . 
215 .. . 
210 . . . 

20s .. . 
200 . . . 




•• 


12 


6 
2 


I 

2 
12 

I 
I 

I 
2 

II 

I 
7 

3 

2 

I 
I 

;; 

.. 


3 
2 

4 
3 

2 
3 

I 

4 
2 

2 

I 
I 


2 
3 

I 
I 

■3 

I 
2 


2 

6 

19 
11 
16 


7 

I 

6 

7 

I 

21 

13 
13 

I 
I 


2 

I 

I 
4 

22 

II 

I 

2 
17 

3 

2 


4 

12 

I 

10 

I 

2 

I 
19 

I 
I 


I 

"8 

2 

I 
7 

8 

I 

2 
17 

2 

I 
4 


I 
I 

7 

8 

I 

19 

I 

I 
7 

2 

I 


5 


I 

4 

4 

I 

5 

I 
I 


I 
I 

5 

7 

5 


I 

5 

9 

4 


I 
I 

I 

2 

2 
2 


3 
6 

2 
2 


;; 

I 

2 

3 
5 

1 


'.'. 


19s .. . 
190 .. . 

i8s . . . 
180 






•• 


175 •• • 
170 .. . 

i6s . . . 
160 .. . 
155 




I 




150 .. . 

14s .. . 
140 .. . 
135 .. . 
130 .. . 

125 .. . 
120 . . . 
115 .. . 
no . . . 

los . . . 
100 . . . 


5 

3 

4 
2 

'8 


9 

I 
2 

6 

5 
2 
2 

I 
II 


I 


90 . . . 

85 . . . 
80 . . . 

75 . . . 
70 . . . 

65... 
60 . . . 
55 . . . 
50 . . . 

45 . . • 
40 . . . 
35 . . . 
30 . . . 

25 . . . 
20 . . . 
IS . . • 
10 . . . 


2 

I 

5 
4 

I 

I 


3 

3 

I 
3 

I 
2 


I 
2 



1 Data from Sears, "Time Allotment in the Schools of Salt Lake City," Edttcational Admin- 
istration and Supervision, March, 1916. 

78 



The Curriculum 



79 



and hygiene, music, art, and physical training seem to have 
a prominent place in the schools. Figure 12 gives these 
facts a much fuller statement, with the result that the 
newer subjects tend to dwindle in importance. 

Table 20 shows the length of the various courses in the 
Boise schools in comparison with similar facts for other 
cities. 

TABLE 20 

Showing the Total Number of Hours Devoted to the Different 
Subjects in Boise as Compared with Other Cities 



Subject 



Reading 

Language- Grammar 

Spelling 

Writing 

Phonics 

Arithmetic . . . . 

Algebra 

History-Civics . . . 
Geography . . . . 
Physiology-Hygiene 
Nature Study . . . 
Domestic Science . 
Manual Training . . 
General Science . . 

Music 

Art 

Physical Education . 



BOISE 



1337 
990 
436 
369 
169 

1189 

234 
676 

369 
247 
122 
126 
134 
183 

376 
396 



Cleveland 



1 710 
847 
444 
419 

1065 

290 

493 
116 



330 



413 
416 

345 



50 Cities 2 



1280 
864 
482 
388 

1008 

496 
539 

427 



403 
460 
322 



1 Franklin-Bobbett, Cleveland Survey Report, What the Schools Teach and Might Teach. 
The Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio. 

2 Henry W. Holmes, "Time Distribution by Subjects and Grades in Representative Cities," 
in the Fourteenth Year Book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, 1915. 
University of Chicago Press, 

In comparison with Cleveland and with the average for a 
group of 50 representative cities, Boise's distribution shows 
entirely too large emphasis upon the group of English sub- 
jects. Boise devotes 4601 hours, Cleveland 3420 hours, and 



8o The Boise Survey 

the 50 cities an average of 3014 hours to the teaching of 
EngHsh. It is the opinion of many that the lowest of these 
figures is too high. In any case, Boise's allotment needs re- 
vision. It is now more than one third higher than an allot- 
ment that is fairly acceptable over the country. Similarly, 
Boise's emphasis upon mathematics is too great, while 
geography, domestic science, manual training and music 
receive too little attention. Especially commendable, how- 
ever, is the relatively large amount of time which the Boise 
schools are devoting to history and civics. 



SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Boise has ample legal power to develop the kind of curric- 
ulum best suited to the needs of the city. The social, in- 
dustrial, and political life of the city, with its legislative 
halls, courts, libraries, parks, and wide variety of industrial 
and commercial life, offers the best of opportunities for con- 
necting the work of the schools with the life of the com- 
munity. 

This chapter has tried to state in brief form what are the 
modern requirements of a good curriculum, that is, what is 
good subject matter for school use. In so doing, it has 
pointed with emphasis to the urgent demand for the kind of 
facts, principles, and experiences that will help the child to 
an understanding and an appreciation of life about him. 
The demand is for less of the memoriter, bookish training 
and for more in the form of actual participation in the 
essential social, civic, and economic processes. 

In breadth the curriculum of Boise's schools is typical of 
what is to be found in most cities of that size. In intensity 
it lays relatively too great emphasis upon the traditional 
formal studies and too little upon the newer studies. Arith- 
metic, spelling, and other work in English should be materi- 
ally reduced, to the end that geography, manual training, 
domestic science, nature study, art and music may receive 
greater emphasis. 



The Curriculum 8i 

The whole curriculum, as judged by the mimeographed 
outlines, would profit if teachers, principals, and supervisors 
would unite in a thoroughgoing study and revision of each 
course, having in mind the principles set forth at the be- 
ginning of this chapter. The outlines of work in nature 
study, geography, physiology and hygiene, and general sci- 
ence do not give one the impression that these courses are 
properly coordinated with each other, and to some degree 
the same can be said of the work in English. While obser- 
vation of classes at work gave the staff the impression that 
the outlines of courses are being properly supplemented by 
individual teachers, yet such responsibility should not be 
left too fully to teachers. A printed course that is worth 
making is worth making well. 

This chapter has tried to indicate what a printed course 
of study should contain and has shown that many of Boise's 
outlines do not meet such standards. 

Finally, if Boise wishes to add a few subjects to the usual 
offering of the elementary schools, we recommend that the 
algebra now taught become merely a part of 8th grade 
arithmetic, and that in its place such applied studies as 
simple bookkeeping, tool work, mechanical drawing, further 
work in cooking, sewing and home decoration, and business 
arithmetic be offered. We recommend also that early steps 
be taken to establish an intermediate or a junior high school, 
consisting of Grades 7, 8, and 9, and that large place be 
provided in its curriculum for such courses as those just 
suggested, to the end that many of Boise's children may 
have as good training for lije as the ^^few" now have for 
higher study. 



CHAPTER V 

EFFICIENCY OF THE INSTRUCTION 

{The Staff) 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

A CURRICULUM is, after all, only as good as it is 
made in the actual classroom. To make effective any 
plan of instruction whatever requires good teachers, good 
supervision, good buildings, and good facilities for work. 
A careful estimate of the efficiency of Boise's buildings is 
presented in Chapter IX, from which it will be seen that 
much yet remains to be done before Boise will have adequate 
school buildings. 

The question of supervision has been dealt with from 
the standpoint of administration, in Chapter II. It remains 
here to add that one of the most obvious weaknesses in the 
instruction as observed by the survey staff is clearly trace- 
able to lack of supervision. As it now stands, the supervisor 
can do little more in many cases than work out plans and 
leave orders that things be done "thus and so." So far as 
the present supervision goes it is useful, but the actual in- 
struction and the general management of the schools would 
greatly profit if a plan of supervising principalships such as 
has been suggested above were put into operation. 

The teaching staff in Boise has been described in Chapter 
III. There it was pointed out that Boise's elementary 
schools are decidedly understaffed, that the staff shows an 
increasing tendency to change from year to year, and that 
the average age and experience of teachers are high. Yet in 
extent and character of training and in attendance at sum- 
mer schools, as well as in the general cosmopolitan make-up 
of the group, Boise's staff is up to the average. The addi- 
tions needed — perhaps ten to fifteen teachers and princi- 

82 



Efficiency of the Instruction 83 

pals — to bring the teaching force up to the best standards 
would undoubtedly bring about substantial improvements of 
the work in every way. 

As to teaching equipment, the schools vary somewhat. 
There are many good blacklDoards, though they are very 
often wrongly placed. The desks are in the main not up to 
standard, and the general appearance of rooms is on the 
whole not above average. In some schools there seemed to 
be a dearth of supplementary books in classrooms, though 
there were some maps, pictures, charts, and like equipment 
in evidence, and little of it seemed to be of the dust-covered 
variety. Nowhere, however, did any member of the staff 
get the impression that teachers and school officers had 
more than a minimum amount of the necessary materials for 
carrying on the work of instruction. This condition was 
sufficiently marked and the fact of sufficient importance to 
warrant mention in this connection. 



OBSERVATIONS OF CLASSROOM WORK 

Many visits, of varying length, were made to classrooms, 
and some attempt was made to use a common set of stand- 
ards for observing the work. It is not possible to present 
the results of such observations in a manner that will make 
them comparable with similar facts in other cities. For 
that reason it seemed wiser to base criticisms upon the re- 
sults obtained from standard tests, which reveal far more 
effectively the present efficiency of classroom work. Such 
observations as were made, however, were discussed by the 
members of the staff, and their results can be stated briefly 
here for what they may be worth. 

No member of the staff reported having observed work 
of a strikingly superior quality. Thinking of the work as 
"poor," "fair," "good," "very good," and "superior," it is 
possible to say that some "poor" and much "fair" and 
"good" work was observed, while a few cases of "very 
good" work were found. Some teachers were obviously 



84 The Boise Survey 

disturbed by our visits, some were not well prepared on the 
lesson, some talked too much or quizzed too much, etc. On 
the other hand, some "very good" instruction in art and 
arithmetic was observed, where the teacher in charge had 
an excellent grasp of the work, was reserved but critical, 
and where the children showed initiative and worked to a 
well-understood purpose. Good supervision would overcome 
many of the defects observed in classrooms. 

STANDARDIZED TESTS 

The place of standardized tests in present-day school ad- 
ministration is so well understood that little need be said 
in explanation of their character or function in a school 
survey. In the measure of educational products, standardized 
tests are rapidly coming to serve a purpose similar to that 
of the ''pound," ''yard," and "pint" in the commercial world. 

In this survey three subjects were chosen for such meas- 
urement: viz., writing, arithmetic, and spelling. The results 
revealed are believed to be fully representative of the work 
being done in all the branches of study. The scales used 
have been thoroughly standardized and used so widely as to 
make it possible to compare Boise's showing with that made 
by large numbers of school systems over the country. 

The tests in handwriting show that the work being accom- 
plished in the different grades is quite uneven both as to 
quality and speed. In quality the city ranks below stand- 
ard, while in speed it is slightly above standard. The wide 
variety of results shown by different classes, different grades, 
and different schools is the strongest evidence that super- 
vision of this subject is weak. There are no sufficiently 
marked social differences among the pupils of the city to 
explain the differences shown in these test results. 

The tests in spelling brought out the same abundance of 
unevenness in results. One school spells with an efficiency 
of 90 per cent, while another drops to 70 per cent. Grade 
3 in the Central School makes a score of 63, while the same 



Efficiency of the Instruction 85 

grade in Whittier School makes 98. More than 5 per cent of 
all the children made scores below 40, while 23 per cent 
made the score of 100. This is evidence of a lack of real 
organization and supervision. It is true that the city as a 
whole ranks high in spelling. Account must be taken of 
the time cost of these results. Reference to Table 19 shows 
that even such good results are not worth the cost, for it 
has robbed more important studies of much-needed time. 

In the arithmetic tests Boise shows good average results 
in the use of whole numbers but serious weakness in the 
handling of fractions. There are also the same marked dif- 
ferences between schools and between classes as were found 
in writing and spelling, which points clearly to the need for 
a more thorough coordination of the work in this subject 
and to the genuine need for ungraded classes. 

The following sections of this chapter will show the de- 
tailed results of the tests in these subjects. 



THE TEST IN HANDWRITING 

7. How the Tests Were Made 

On Monday, May 26, each teacher in Grades 4 to 8 
inclusive was sent the following instructions: 

Please write the following sentences on the blackboard: 

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this 
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the propo- 
sition that all men are created equal. Today we are engaged in a great 
civil war testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so 
dedicated can long endure. 

We are met on a great battlefield of that war. 

Have the pupils copy this until they are familiar with it. They should 
then copy it, beginning at a given signal, and write for exactly two 
minutes. Have them all stop at once, and count the words they have 
written. 



86 



The Boise Survey 



Use ruled examination paper. Have pupils write with pen and ink. 
Do not encourage children to use any particular form or movement. 
Let them write in their own way, and at the ordinary speed with which 
they would write a letter. Any attempt on the part of a teacher to have 
them do otherwise may result in a lower score than would be obtained 
under natural conditions. 

On the same evening 1408 papers were returned to the 
survey office, representing all pupils in attendance that day 
in Grades 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. There were evidences that the 
teachers cooperated to a high degree in the securing of uni- 
form data. The samples obtained are probably as repre- 
sentative of the normal handwriting of the Boise school 
children as can be secured. The factor of keeping time for 
the test leaves open an opportunity for irregularities, but it 
is believed that if there were any departures from the 
correct procedure they were of no serious consequence. Most 
of the teachers have had experience in the giving of hand- 
writing tests, and, in fact, in using the same form of the 
Ayres Scale upon which the scores for this study were based. 



TABLE 20 a. Distribution of Handwriting 





Grade 4 


Grade 5 


Score 


"2 


2 

^ 

6 


E 



c 


1 


1 


-a 

p2 


c 


1 


1 

< 


2 

S 


1 

1 



1 


'3 


1 


1 


■a 


a 


be 

c 

1 


1 


1 

3 

3 


100 








.. 


































QO 










































80 




































4 




4 


70 
















I 




I 










I 


I 


I 


9 


I 


13 


60 










3 




I 


8 


T 


T^ 


? 


?. 


T 




3 


. . 


5 


IS 


2 


2« 


SO 


I 


7 


I 


3 


13 


4 








Q 


S6 


8 


4 


2 


6 


16 


6 


14 


II 


II 


78 


40 


8 


10 


4 


6 


14 


14 


II 


12 


10 


8q 


17 


14 


s 


9 


21 


IS 


18 


2 


9 


1 10 


30 


7 


10 


10 


10 


6 


10 


21 


4 


8 


86 


7 


II 


4 


9 


9 


7 


t) 


I 


2 


SO 


20 


14 


3 


8 


7 


7 


3 


6 


I 


2 


SI 


3 


s 


3 




3 


3 


3 




2 


22 


10 


I 








I 




3 






4 






















Total .... 


31 


30 


23 


26 


44 


31 


SO 


35 


30 


300 


37 


36 


'' 


24 


53 


32 


47 


40 


27 


311 


Medians . . . 


28 


43 


34 


35 


46 


42 


38 


51 


45 


41 


47 


42 


41 


44 


47 


45 


48 


6S 


SO 


48 


Norm .... 


46 


46 


46 


46 


46 


46 


46 


46 


46 


46 


SO 


SO 


SO 


SO 


SO 


SO 


SO 


50 


so 


SO 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



87 



2. Scoring the Papers 

The procedure in scoring was that described by Dr. 
Ayres in the directions accompanying the ^'Gettysburg Edi- 
tion" of his measuring scale for handwriting. This scale 
consists of a series of handwriting samples which have been 
selected upon the basis of relative quality value, from sam- 
ples obtained from tests given to several thousand school 
children. The steps in the scale are statistically evaluated 
and specimens grading 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90 
are reproduced on the score sheet for comparative purposes. 

Each of the 1408 papers from the Boise schools was com- 
pared with the samples on the Ayres Scale and was given a 
grade corresponding to that of the sample which it most 
nearly resembled in quality. After the papers for each 
room were graded, they were rechecked and arranged in 
order of score. Following this, the number of whole letters 
written on each paper was recorded. Since the papers rep- 
resented two minutes of writing, the number of letters di- 



Scores 


01 


Quality, by Grades and Schools 
















Grade 6 


Grade 7 


Grade 8 








^ 






g 




xn 






ti 






tn 






f4 






Ifl 




TJ 




-^ 






M 


^ 


"8 






S 






§ 






1 






3 


o 


•fi 


1 


a 


1 


M 


^ 




^ 


S 


ya 


tc 


^ 


-H 


d^ 


rt 


•S 

^ 


to 


1 


-?■ 


d^ 


^ 


a 


^ 


^ 


£ 


^ 


^ 


< 


^ 


" 


^ 


^ 


£ 


< 


6 





^ 


■3 


^ 


< 


•• 






















I 




1 


2 








I 




X 


I 










I 


2 


I 


5 


2 


3 


3 


I 


3 


12 


5 


3 


4 


I 


.. 


li 




I 


I 




I 


2 


7 


2 


14 


13 




b 


2 


3 


27 


II 


6 


5 


2 


4 


I 


3 


6 


I 


2 


9 


10 


« 


40 


15 


8 


28 


10 


13 


74 


2,^ 


7 


15 





12 


66 


7 


14 


8 


II 


8 


22 


12 


10 


92 


30 


7 


30 


14 


26 


107 


23 


6 


17 


13 


IQ 


78 


II 


13 


13 


12 


7 


18 


5 


2 


81 


19 


I 


14 


7 


13 


54 


14 


5 


13 


4 


13 


49 


b 


I 


4 


9 

4 


2 


4 


I 


2 


4 


6 






3 

I 


4 

:: 


13 

I 


I 


I 


2 




I 


S 


28 


Z2 


32 


37 


20 


S6 


37 


25 


267 


85 


22 


82 


38 


63 


290 


77 


28 


56 


30 


49 


240 


45 


52 


40 


43 


SI 


53 


60 


59 


52 


57 


6s 


59 


57 


54 


57 


60 


63 


54 


59 


56 


58 


54 


54 


54 


54 


54 


54 


54 


54 


54 


58 


58 


58 


S8 


58 


58 


62 


62 


62 


62 


62 


62 



88 



The Boise Survey 

TABLE 21. Distribution of Handwriting Scores op 





Grade 4 


Grade s 


No. of Letters 










I 

2 






a 














1 
2 






c 






per Minute 


2 

i 


1 


e 


t 


"o 
(J 

.S 


^ 

1 


1 

3 


ii 

fcO 

a 
1 


'2 


1 

< 
6 


2 
1 


3 


e 


1 


c 

1 


1 




15 


1 

IS 


< 


no and Over. 


, 


100-109 . . . 












2 






3 


5 


2 


I 






3 


I 








8 


90-99 . . . 


2 










5 


3 


I 


2 


14 




2 




I 


5 


2 


I 






12 


80-89 . . . 


I 


I 


I 






9 


5 


2 


2 


27 


7 


7 




I 


7 


10 


6 


2 




40 


^o-^g . . . 


3 


I 


2 


7 


12 


9 


II 


10 


9 


64 


10 


16 




I 


II 


8 


10 


5 




65 


60-69 . . . 


10 


II 


9 


7 


II 


4 


7 


II 


6 


76 


13 


4 




9 


15 


5 


10 


4 


S 


72 


50-59 . • ■ 


6 


5 


3 


7 






10 


8 


4 


4O 


5 


I 




7 


5 


I 


7 


II 


7 


45 


40-49 . • • 


8 


10 


5 


4 




I 


8 


2 


3 


48 




I 




3 


5 


4 


II 


12 


IS 


52 


30-39 . • • 


I 


2 


3 


I 






2 


I 


1 


12 




I 




2 




I 


2 


4 




10 


20-29 . . ■ 














I 






2 
















2 


•• 


2 


Total No. . . 


31 

60 

55 


30 
53 
55 


23 
57 
55 


26 
61 

55 


44 
68 
55 


31 

80 
55 


50 
64 

55 


35 
63 

55 


30 

70 
55 


300 
66 
55 


37 
70 
64 


36 
73 

64 


15 
65 
64 


24 
60 
64 


53 
70 
64 


32 
73 
64 


47 
64 


40 
52 
64 


27 
64 


311 


Medians . . 


68 


Ayres Norms 


64 



vided by 2 was recorded as the rate per minute. The dis- 
tribution of the scores for quality and rate are shown in 
Tables 20 a and 21. 

J. Boise Ratings in Quality 

The entire distribution of scores, by schools and separate 
grades, is shown in Table 20 a. Here the median performance 
for each separate grade can be compared with the median 
for the entire city and the general norms. The wide distribu- 
tion of scores, ranging from 10 to 70 in Grade 4, 20 to 80 in 
Grade 5, etc., shows how important it is that we recognize 
the individual differences among children. Variations in 
native ability are clearly shown in handwriting, and the dis- 
tribution over such a wide range as we find here is equally 
characteristic of variability in all the traits which make for 
school and life success. 

How the quality of handwriting in Boise, grade for grade, 
compares with the norms obtained by Dr. Ayres from the 



Efficiency of the Instruction 

Speed (Rate per Minute) by Grades and Schools 



89 



Grade 6 


Grade 7 




Grad 


e8 








% 






§ 




^ 






% 






^ 






rf 






» 


1 


2 


'^ 


1 


=s 


■^ 


I 


"5 


1 




2 
^ 


1 




-a 


to 


u 


2 




1 


1 


f 


1 


C 





J:^ 


^ 


(^ 


p: 


^ 


< 


CJ 


6 


^ 


^ 


& 


< 


Cj 



3 


IS 


I 


(2 
14 


=3 
< 






I 


II 


2 


10 






24 




4 


2 


6 


7 


19 


21 


54 


4 


2 




7 


s 


9 






27 


4 


3 


2 


9 


8 


26 


18 


2 


7 


I 





37 


8 


I 


I 


b 


4 




I 


3 


l^ 


9 


6 


6 


10 


9 


40 


8 


8 


13 


5 


6 


40 


10 


b 


3 





(3 


21 




2 


62 


35 


6 


25 


Q 


17 


92 


17 


10 


14 


7 


12 


60 




14 


6 


3 


3 




11 


6 


S3 


27 


I 


28 


3 


18 


77 


II 


5 


4 


12 


6 


38 




8 


II 










9 


38 


10 


I 


14 


I 


4 


30 


I 




2 


3 




6 




I 


3 










4 


16 




I 


3 






4 






I 


I 


I 


3 






5 










I 


14 






I 






I 


I 








I 


2 






I 








2 




3 






I 






I 


















I 












I 


























38 


32 


32 


37 


20 


56 


37 


25 


267 


85 


22 


s. 


38 


63 


290 


77 


28 


56 


30 


49 


240 


87 


73 


65 


98 


91 


86 


66 


63 


82 


83 


95 


76 


96 


87 


83 


100 


88 


96 


78 


96 


82 


71 


71 


71 


71 


71 


71 


71 


71 


71 


76 


76 


,6 


76 


76 


76 


79 


79 


79 


79 


79 


79 



scoring of 62,000 samples is shown in Figure 13. The Boise 
ratings fall slightly below the norms in all grades, the great- 
est difference being 5 points (Grade 4). The deviation 
for the city is relatively slight, and it may be safely inferred 
that the quality of the handwriting of the children of Boise, 
on the whole, compares favorably with that of the children 
in other cities. A study of the distribution of scores should 
be of value in deciding where the emphasis should be placed 
in order that the handwriting efficiency for the city may be 
improved. Pupils in Grade 4 who score no higher than 20 
points, when more than half of the pupils in the same grade 
in Boise score higher than 40, are obviously in need of 
special attention. 

To illustrate the variability of pupils within the same 
grade, a series of samples of the handwriting of Boise pupils 
has been arranged and reproduced in Figure 14. These 
have been selected from the best and the poorest papers in 
each grade, and are suggestive of what would happen if 



90 



The Boise Survey 



Fig. 



erode l> 


y 


Y 


V 


1 V 


\ VI 


II 


Score 
















TT 












































^^ 




■ 35 






-'->== 


^ 










^-^^ 








^ assK. 


^-^ 


.> 


- 








-4oB015L 

-35 


^ 








— 


-30 

-25 

■ 5rt ■ — ■- 










— 


- 15 

- 10 










— 


- 5 

- 


f 


\ 


( 


V 


1 V 


1 VI 


11 








(Qo/Ji/ryJ 



13- 



Median Performance op Boise Pupils in Handwriting Quality, 
BY Grades, in Comparison with Standard Scores 



pupils were placed in school grades according to handwriting 
ability alone. It is obvious that in such an event some of the 
pupils in the lower grades could exchange places with some 
of those who will soon be entering high school. Fortunately, 
handwriting achievement is not the sole basis of promotion. 

4. Boise Ratings in Speed 

The rate of handwriting based on the average number of 
letters per minute is shown in Table 21. Here again we 



Efficiency of the Instruction 91 










.J^^^^t{iy^2^ 2^^^^^-c-^J>4/ y^^^V^cPVt^ ^^^ ^ 















% 



/t'KT,'' ^<5-<^i>';2<y ^■^5«5«^''?2.*'»&*t/ 






Fig. 14. Handwriting Samples Selected from Best and Poorest Writ- 
ing IN Each Grade (Grade 4 at Bottom, Grade 8 at Top) 



92 The Boise Survey 

find a wide scattering of scores, suggestive of marked in- 
dividual differences. In some cases the speed with which 
different pupils in the same classroom write is such that 
the contrast is striking. Of 300 pupils in the fourth grade, 
62 write fewer than 40 letters per minute, while 52 write 
more than 80 letters per minute, or more than twice as 
rapidly. This difference can best be illustrated by quoting 
the actual passage used in the test, showing the text covered 
by approximately 40 and 80 letters. One boy in the fifth 
grade wrote : 

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought (42 letters), 

while another boy in the same class wrote : 

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this 
continent a new nation, conceived (83 letters), 

these passages representing half of what each wrote in the 
two minutes of the test. The difference may seem slight, 
when applied to such a small passage, but when we realize 
that the second boy can do twice as much written work as 
the first boy in the same period of time, we cannot help 
looking at it in the light of its educational significance. It 
is interesting to note that the papers of the two boys re- 
ferred to show the same quality ratings, which happen to 
be up to the average for their grade. 

On the whole, the children of Boise write more rapidly 
than the children of other cities, as judged by a comparison 
of the median performance, grade for grade, with the norms 
obtained by Dr. Ayres. The comparison is shown in Figure 
15. The rate of increase in Boise is less regular than that 
shown by Dr. Ayres' curve, and it appears that there is no 
appreciable increase in speed above the sixth grade. The 
difference is most marked between the fifth and sixth grades, 
the increase being approximately 20 per cent (82.68). 

5. Relation between Quality and Speed 

A study of the speed and quality of Boise handwriting 
samples resulted in finding a positive correlation of .23. 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



93 




Fig. 15. Median Performance of Boise Pupils in Handwriting Rate, 
BY Grades, in Comparison with Standard Scores 

This means that, on the whole, the pupils who write well 
also write rapidly; and, inversely, those who write poorly 
also write slowly. There are many exceptions, of course, 
and it does not follow that any pupil who improves in the one 
respect will necessarily in the other. In fact, investigators 
find that causing a pupil to write more slowly does not im- 
prove the quality of his writing. Investigations have also 
shown that efforts of individuals to increase their speed of 
writing tends to make them write a poorer quality. 



94 The Boise Survey 

6. The Teaching of Handwriting 

Both the quality and speed of handwriting in the Boise 
schools can be improved. It has been demonstrated that 
individual pupils, grades, schools, and entire cities can make 
material progress in both of these directions in a few months. 
The extent of the improvement can be determined only by 
the application of a standardized scale for quality, and the 
keeping of accurate records as to speed. This can be easily 
done by the teachers. The compilation of such data at reg- 
ular intervals, and the making of comparisons, would con- 
stitute a valuable cooperative study and would amount to a 
continuous survey. The Ayres Scale is already used by 
many of the teachers in Boise, and in some cases it has been 
admirably adapted to classroom instruction. Competition 
among classes and schools based on the scale should be of 
value. 

The mooted question as to the relative efficiency of dif- 
ferent systems of handwriting has not yet been answered by 
scientific comparison. It can only be settled, if at all, by 
impartial gradings on a uniform basis. It is not unreason- 
able to suppose that at some time the different systems may 
be arranged in order of their respective merits. All methods 
tend to develop essential points: legibility, uniformity, gen- 
eral quality, and speed. To write clearly, evenly, and rap- 
idly, without any of these factors detracting from the 
others, should be the aim of every pupil. Children can be 
taught to watch their progress in relation to that of the 
other pupils and other schools. Teachers should watch the 
progress of their pupils, and each should aim to bring her 
class to the highest possible level of efficiency. 

THE TEST IN SPELLING 

J. Spelling in the Course of Study 

Formal instruction in spelling begins in the second grade 
of the Boise schools and continues through the sixth grade. 



Efficiency of the Instruction 95 

In the seventh and eighth grades spelling is taught as a part 
of the regular work in English, history, geography, etc. 
There is no regular spelling textbook used, — the words 
employed for drill being selected from "Ayres' Spelling List, 
A to O,'' ''The One Hundred Spelling Demons of the English 
Language," and books used as texts and supplementary 
readers in the various grades. The course of study does not 
indicate the amount of time per week that it would be profit- 
able for each grade to spend on spelling. As shown in Table 
19, the average for all the grades is no minutes per week, 
which, according to the best available data, is fully 25 per 
cent too much. 



2. The Test and How it was Applied 

In measuring the efficiency in spelling the Ayres "Measur- 
ing Scale for Ability in Spelling" ^ was employed. Twenty 
words from list "L" were given to all the pupils in the third 
grades of the Boise schools; the same number of words from 
list ''O" were given to the fourth, from list "Q" to the fifth, 
from list "S" to the sixth, from list ''U" to the seventh, and 
a set of twenty words compiled from lists "V," "W," ''X," 
"Y," and ''Z" to the pupils of the eighth grades, respectively. 

T?he Ayres spelling scale was compiled from data obtained 
through the application of spelling tests in 84 cities, the 
words of these tests later being arranged in lists and scien- 
tifically grouped according to difficulty.^ The words for the 
Boise survey spelling test were selected from lists where the 
average score of the grade to be tested was found to be 73. 
For example, list ''L" was selected as the list from which the 
twenty words for the third grade would be taken, because 
in the standardization of the Ayres Scale the average score 
of third-grade children was found to be 73. In like manner 
list "O" was chosen for the fourth grade, and so on through 

* Published by Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N. Y. 
2 For explanation of the scale and how it was made, see Ayres Measuring 
Scale for Ability in Spelling, Russell Sage Foundation. 



96 The Boise Survey 

the seventh. The words for the eighth grade were selected 
from several lists, but in such a manner as to bring the 
expected average score to 73 likewise. 

We may therefore accept 73 as the standard score which 
each grade in Boise should attain, if the instruction in this 
subject is as good as the average in a large number of cities 
in the United States. As a matter of fact, we could reason- 
ably expect considerably higher scores from the Boise third 
and fourth grades, because lists ''A" to ''O" inclusive have 
been used as a part of their regular course of study in spell- 
ing. 

These selected lists of words were pronounced to the 
children by the regular classroom teachers, in accordance 
with written instructions handed to the principals of the 
nine buildings and by them communicated to their teachers. 
The teachers were instructed to follow the ordinary class 
procedure in the matter of writing, pronunciation, explana- 
tion of words of more than one meaning, etc. Immediately 
upon completion of the test the papers were collected, scored 
by the teachers, results recorded on sheets prepared for the 
purpose, and both papers and results sent to the office of the 
survey commission in the high school building, where the 
papers were checked for errors. 

J. Results of the Test 

The results of this test appear in the following tables and 
diagrams, which present the facts by schools, by grades, and 
for the city as a whole. The scores are computed according 
to the method employed by Ayres in arriving at his norms 
for the Ayres Spelling Scale. Twenty pupils spelling twenty 
words each would make 400 spellings. If 100 of the spell- 
ings were incorrect, the percentage of accuracy would be 
400 into 300, or 75 per cent. The median scores by grades 
and by schools are also shown, because they give a better 
idea of the spelling efficiency of a group of individuals than 
does the percentage of accuracy. 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



97 



4. Results by Schools and jor the City as a Whole 

Table 22 gives the results by schools and for the city as 
a whole. In this table the schools are arranged in rank 
order on the basis of the percentage of accuracy. Rank 



TABLE 22 

Showing Average and Median Scores by Schools and for City 
AS A Whole 



Schools by R. 0} of Ac. 


Ph 
d 

5z; 


en 

31 


d m 

^ 


r 


1 

2 


P^ 


< 


Hawthorne 

Central 

Park 

Longfellow 

Lowell 


57 
286 

319 
307 
196 
152 
109 

175 
104 


1,140 
5,720 
6,380 
6,140 
3,920 
3,040 
2,180 
3,500 
2,080 


"5 
1042 

1254 

1245 

802 

677 
496 
837 

625 


90 
82 
80 
80 
80 
78 
77 
76 
70 

79 


95 
85 
85 
85 
80 

85 
80 

85 
75 


(i) 
(3) 
(2) 
(4) 
(7) 
(6) 
(8) 
(5) 
(9) 


193 m. 

141 " 

90 " 

88 " 

83 " 

88 " 

106 " 

116 " 

124 " 


Washington 

Whittier 

Garfield 

Lincoln 


All 


1705 


34,100 


7093 


85 




no " 



1 R. O. = Rank order. 

order by median scores is indicated by the figures in paren- 
theses at the right of the column marked ^'Median Score." 
The last column on the right gives the average amount of 
time per week devoted to spelling in each school. This 
table shows the average spelling ability of the pupils in the 
different schools. Hawthorne School, with 90 per cent of 
accuracy on the Ayres Scale, has the highest average score, 
and Lincoln School, with 70 per cent, has the lowest average 
score. The latter is the only school in which the general 
average falls below the Ayres Scale norm of 73 per cent. 



98 The Boise Survey 

For the city as a whole the per cent of accuracy is 79, or 
6 points above the Ayres standard on the same words. From 
the column of median scores it appears that at least 50 per 
cent of the children in every Boise school made a score of 
75 per cent or better. In the Hawthorne School 50 per cent 
of the children made scores of 95 or 100. This is a small 
school, however, with only 57 pupils in the third, fourth, 
and fifth grades present on the day the test was given. The 
average amount of time devoted to spelling in the Hawthorne 
School is 193 minutes per week, or 83 minutes per week 
more than the average for the city as a whole. Spelling 
efficiency in this school is undoubtedly attained at too great 
a cost in time. This 83 minutes would better be used other- 
wise. 



5. Results by Schools, by Grades, and for the 
City as a Whole 

Table 23 shows the distribution of average scores in spell- 
ing by schools, by grades, and for the city as a whole, as 
well as the total number of pupils in each of the grades. 
The data presented in this table are graphically set forth 
in Figure 16, which shows the highest and lowest grades in 
each school, the school average, the average for the city as 
a whole, and the Ayres standard norm for the words given 
to each grade. 

There is a marked difference in spelling efficiency between 
the different grades of the same school. From the figures 
above and below the margins it may be seen that the third 
grade in the Central School made only 64 per cent, whereas 
Grade 5 made an average score of 93 per cent. The Whittier 
School presents a similar extreme case, where the third 
grade made a score of 98 per cent, while the fourth grade 
made an average score of only 69 per cent. The grade 
making the lowest average score for the city as a whole was 
the fourth grade of the Lincoln School, with an average of 
only 55 per cent, while the highest score was made by the 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



99 



TABLE 23. Spelling Test, Distribution of Average Scores by 
Schools, by Grades, and for the City as a Whole 



Schools 



Total for City 
Central . . . 
Garfield . . . 
Hawthorne . . 
Lincoln . . . 
Longfellow . . 
Lowell .... 

Park 

Washington 
Whittier . . . 

Pupils in Grades 



Total 
Ave. 



79 
82 

76 
90 
70 
80 
80 
80 
78 
77 



83 
87 
83 



81 
87 
75 



Grades 



^2, 
83 
87 



95 
68 



80 
76 
73 



64 
76 

75 
94 
92 
79 



77 
93 
73 
86 

85 
78 
63 
80 
64 
79 



77 
77 
71 
91 
55 
69 
81 
93 
75 
69 



78 
64 
73 
92 
81 
76 
69 
73 
83 
98 



1705 



245 



296 



270 



311 



301 



282 



y CeffTpai aannsLO mwmoane ufifcoiM Le/igmuiif lowsu P/tffk w/iSHiMffro/t wHJrneo 



tS— M^^.r^rr^ 


V 


VII 






1// 




Mtd'on 






Mt</,an 










»0 = 


VII 


^S'^'S"-.. 






mttfian 








U- 
















V^ 














-T^jni-- 


^Me^'Z" 










,Med.on__ 












w- 
















er~ 


\lii 












4 -^ 











Fig. 16. Results of the Spelling Tests by Schools 

Upper margin: highest score made by any grade in each school; lower margin: lowest score 
made by any grade in each school; straight line: average score for all the schools together; 
dotted line: average score of each school by itself ; full dotted line: Ayres' standard for words 
used in test. 



100 The Boise Survey 

TABLE 24. Showing the Percentage of Children of Each Grade 



Grade 


Possible Scores 


lOO 


95 


90 


85 


80 


75 


70 


65 


60 


55 


8 

7 
6 

5 
4 
3 


15-5 
30.5 
26.0 
21.0 
22.4 
22.6 


17.8 
19.0 
12.0 
14.0 
II. 2 
II. 9 


139 
7-3 
7-3 
10. s 
10. 
10. 


18.S 
7-5 
9-3 
8.0 
7.6 
5-6 


5-4 
5-3 
8.2 

9-5 
7.6 
9.0 


6.5 
4.0 
II. 2 
10. 
6.3 
5-6 


5.6 
50 
7-3 
4-5 
6.0 
6.0 


4-4 
6.0 

5-3 
4.2 

5-0 
6.3 


4.0 
2.4 

2.2 

3-2 
5-0 

4.5 


2.8 

1-3 
30 
2.2 
5.0 
3-5 


City Total 


23.0 


14. 1 


9-7 


9-4 


7-4 


7-2> 


5-6 


5-2 


3-5 


30 



third grade of the Whittier School, with a score of 98 per 
cent. All the grades on the lower margin, except the fifth 
grade of the Hawthorne School, made average scores below 
both the city average and the Ayres standard norm, and 
give evidence of spelling efficiency below what should reason- 
ably be expected of them. Grade 4 most often ranks lowest; 
Grade 7 most often ranks highest, and there is very little 
correlation between amount of time spent in the study and 
recitation of spelling and average scores attained in the 
spelling test. 

The above comparison of schools based on the best 
average score made by any grade, or on the lowest average 
score made by any grade, or the comparison of any given 
school with the city average and with the Ayres standard 
norm, clearly indicate the diversity of standards that exist 
among the different schools and among the different grades 
in the same school and suggest the necessity for careful 
administrative attention to the problem of equalizing the 
differences that now exist. 



Efficiency of the Instruction loi 

Who Attained Each of the Possible Scores in Spelling ^ 



Grade 


Possible Scores 


50 


45 


40 


35 


30 


25 


20 


15 


10 


5 





8 

7 
6 

5 
4 
3 


.8 
2.4 

I.O 

2.0 
2.0 


1.6 
3-6 

1 .0 
4.0 
2.0 
31 


1.6 
1.6 
1.6 

2-3 

2.0 
30 

2 . 1 


•4 

•3 

•7 

1 .0 

1.6 

2.0 


.8 

i-S 
i-S 
1.0 
1.4 


•4 

.6 

1.0 

.6 

•7 
1.4 


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•3 

.6 

1 .0 

•7 


1-3 

l 

•3 

•7 

.7 


•3 
•3 

•7 
.0 

.4 


•3 

•3 
.7 

•4 


•7 


City Total 


2.0 


2.0 


1 .0 


I . I 


.8 


.6 


.7 



1 70.9 per cent make scores above the Ayres norm of 73. 
29.1 " " " " below " " " " 73. 

6, Results by Individuals 

In order to get a complete picture of the spelling efficiency 
of the school children of Boise, it is necessary to study the 
individual scores of the children in the spelling test as well 
as the average scores by schools and by grades. For ex- 
ample, the average score of the pupils in the third grade of 
the Hawthorne School was 92 per cent, yet 74 per cent of 
the mistakes were made by 30 per cent of the pupils. The 
third grade of the Lincoln School made an average score of 
81 per cent, but 91 per cent of the mistakes were made by 
40 per cent of the pupils. These cases suggest that a few 
very poor spellers in a given grade may pull down the aver- 
age of that grade materially. A distribution by individual 
scores will indicate proportion of poor and very poor spellers 
in the different grades and in the city as a whole. 

Table 24 shows the distribution of the individual scores 
and the percentage of children of each grade who attained 
each of the possible scores from 100 to o inclusive. 



102 The Boise Survey 

The facts presented in Table 24 are shown graphically in 
Figure 17, for each grade separately and for the city as a 
whole. 

Discussing, first, the distribution of scores for the entire 
city, which includes the records of 1705 children, we find 
that 23.0 per cent, or nearly one fourth of the total number, 
spell the entire twenty words of the test correctly; 14 per 
cent spell all but one word correctly; 9.7 per cent spell all 
but two, and 9.4 per cent spell all but three of the words of 
the test correctly. All the other possible scores, including 
o, are represented in the table by rapidly decreasing per- 
centages of children. 

When the distribution by grades is considered, we find 
that Grades 3, 4, and 5 have a distribution similar to the 
one for the city as a whole, while Grades 6 and 7 have 
higher percentages, attaining the score 100, and Grade 8 
has higher percentages attaining scores 95 and 85 than 
attain 100. 

Figure 18 shows the proportion of "good spellers" to 
"poor spellers" for each grade and for the entire city. There 
are 71 per cent of the children of the Boise schools whose 
spelling ranks above the Ayres Scale standard (73), and 
29 per cent whose scores fall below that standard. The 
eighth grade makes the best showing in this comparison, 
with 77.6 per cent of its pupils attaining scores above the 
Ayres standard, while the third and fourth grades make the 
poorest showing with only 64.7 and 65.4 per cent of their 
pupils attaining scores above the standard. 

From Table 24 and Figures 17 and 18 it appears that the 
spelling test was too easy for approximately 2 5 per cent of 
the children in the Boise schools, and too difficult for an- 
other 25 per cent. The pedagogical problem presented is, 
how to adjust the work in spelling in such a way as to pro- 
vide work sufficiently difficult to enlist the best energies of 
the "good spellers," thus saving them from acquiring habits 
of idleness, and likewise how to bring the "poor spellers" 
up to a reasonable standard of efficiency without devoting a 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



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disproportionate amount of time to the spelling work. It 
is very doubtful if satisfactory results can be secured under 
the present plan of conducting spelling exercises by whole 



104 



The Boise Survey 





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or half grades. By the use of standard tests, and by plotting 
the daily scores in spelling, it should be possible for teachers 



Efficiency of the Instruction 105 

to group their pupil^ according to spelling ability. Work 
could then be given to these groups commensurate with their 
capacity to perform it. Whenever the ^'fast" group had 
attained approximate perfection in the spelling work as- 
signed to its school grade, formal spelling for the members 
of that group could be dispensed with and the attention of 
the teacher concentrated upon the "slow" group. In this 
way much time would be saved to those who are ahead of 
their grade in spelling, while those who are behind would 
receive the individual attention they need to bring their 
work up to the standard. Also the extreme variations that 
now appear between the spelling abilities of individuals and 
of grades would tend to disappear. 

7. Conclusions 

In general it may be said, then, that while Boise ranks 
well above the Ayres standard in average spelling efficiency, 
it ranks low in the percentage of poor spellers found in each 
grade, and there is evidence of serious lack of coordination 
in the amount of time devoted to spelling in the different 
grades. Considering the way in which it is utilized, there 
is too much time given to spelling in most of the grades. 
According to the plan suggested above, of grouping pupils 
according to ability for purposes of drill in spelling, time 
could be allotted according to the needs of the groups or- 
ganized. The "slow" groups could be given sufficient time 
to permit a considerable amount of individual attention to 
their needs by the teacher, while the "fast" group could be 
given less time, or more difficult work to accomplish. 

The excellent showing of the Boise schools in the spelling 
test should not blind the administrative authorities to the 
necessity of making the necessary adjustments in methods 
of supervising the teaching of spelling in order to reduce to 
a minimum the number of pupils who fall below a reason- 
able standard of spelling efficiency. The present showing 
of 29 per cent who failed to reach the Ayres Scale standard 



io6 The Boise Survey 

of 73 per cent of accuracy should stand as a challenge to 
teachers and supervisors alike, spurring them to make a 
determined cooperative effort to improve conditions with 
respect to the subject of spelling. 

THE TEST IN ARITHMETIC 

Tests in arithmetic were given to pupils in seven schools, 
in Grades 3 to 8 inclusive, during the last week of May, 
1919. 

/. Character of Tests 

The tests used are known as the Cleveland Arithmetic 
Tests, They cover the fundamental operations of arith- 
metic. There were fifteen different sets, designated by the 
letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, and O. 
The sets were arranged in ascending series according to diffi- 
culty, but the different operations were interwoven in such 
a way as to give change and variety sufficient to sustain 
interest and reduce fatigue to a minimum. The examples 
in Set A were in the addition of two figures. Set E was addi- 
tion again in the form of five-figure columns, Set J, of thir- 
teen-figure columns, and Set M was composed of examples 
in the addition of four columns of five figures each. Set B 
was of the subtraction of one figure from one- or two-figure 
numbers; Set F, subtraction of three-figure numbers from 
three- and four-figure numbers. Sets C, G, and L were in 
multiplication; Sets D, I, K, and N, in division; and sets 
H and O, in fractions. 

The above-described tests were used because they cover 
all the fundamental operations in arithmetic according to 
a spiral arrangement as to difficulty and likewise because 
essentially the same tests have been recently employed in 
the school surveys of Cleveland, Ohio, Grand Rapids, Michi- 
gan, and St. Louis, Missouri. The results of the tests in 
Boise, therefore, will show not only the absolute achieve- 
ment of Boise public school children in the various phases 
of the subject of arithmetic, but also their relative achieve- 



Efficiency of the Instruction 107 

ment when compared to the children of other cities where 
the same tests have been applied. 



2. Methods of Applying Test 

Members of the survey staff, assisted by principals, 
teachers, and supervisors carefully instructed in the methods 
of giving the tests, conducted the test exercises in the schools 
selected for the purpose. The time allowances were the 
same for each set as employed in the Cleveland and other 
surveys and ranged from thirty seconds to three minutes, 
according to the complexity of the operation. Between each 
two sets a few minutes' rest period was allowed, and after 
the completion of the ninth set a ten-minute out-of-doors 
recess was given before the last six sets were attempted. 
The following instructions to pupils were printed on each 
test folder: 

Inside this folder are examples which you are to work out when the 
teacher tells you to begin. Work rapidly and accurately. There are 
more problems in each set than you can work out in the time that will 
be allowed. Answers do not count if they are wrong. Begin and stop 
promptly at signals from the teacher. 

At the conclusion of the test teachers read the correct 
answers aloud, instructing the children to mark each correct 
example with a "C." The children were then told to count 
the number of examples attempted and the number of C's 
and to write the numbers in the columns at the right of the 
page marked ''Ats." and *'Rts.," respectively. Results were 
then transferred to the first page of the folder for ready 
reference, and teachers carefully verified the results before 
turning the folders over to the representative of the survey 
staff. Finally, all papers were checked for errors by the 
members of die survey staff and their trained assistants. 



io8 The Boise Survey 

3, General Results 

The median number of examples solved correctly in each 
set by each grade for the city as a whole is set forth in 
Table 25. The third grades attempted only the first four 
sets, A, B, C, and D, while the fourth grades did not attempt 
Sets N and O. Wherever ^'o" appears in the tables as the 
median score of a grade, it means that more than 50 per 
cent of the pupils in that grade earned a score of "zero" in 
that set — i.e., failed to solve any of the examples attempted. 

Table 25 shows relatively constant progress from grade 
to grade in each of the fundamental arithmetical processes 
covered by the different sets, the most striking exception 
to this rule being found in connection with the median 
scores attained in Set H, addition of simple fractions with 
like denominators. In this set the fourth grade makes a 
score of o, the fifth, a score of 3.7 examples, the sixth, a 
score of o, the seventh, a score of 3.5 examples, and the 
eighth, a score of 5.8. There is only a difference of 2.1 
examples between the score of the fifth grade and that of 
the eighth grade, while the sixth fails entirely and the 
seventh makes a lower score than the fifth in this set. 

In Set O, on the other hand, which involves complex opera- 
tions in fractions, there appears to be consistent progress 
from grade to grade, beginning with the fifth. The fact 
that Grade 6 made a median score of 2.7 examples solved 
in Set O (complex fractions) and a score of o in Set H 
(simple fractions) would argue that it was something in the 
nature of test H that caused the results to be so uneven. 
Comparison of the Boise results with those in other cities 
seems to point, on the other hand, to rather serious deficien- 
cies in the Boise method of handling the subject of fractions. 

4. Comparison with Cleveland 

In Figure 19 comparison is made between the median 
scores of all the grades in Boise in all sets, with similar 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



109 



TABLE 25 



Median Scores 


BY Grades in All Sections of Arithmetic Test 
FOR Entire City 


Section of 


Grades Tested 




the Test 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 




A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 


19.8 

II-3 
10. 

9-4 


23.6 

16.5 

15.6 

13.9 

5-3 

5.6 

4-3 



1-5 
3-9 
3-8 

2-3 

3.8 


26.4 
18.4 
16.4 
15-5 
6.1 

7-1 

5-2 

3-7 
1.8 
4.1 
5-5 
3.4 
4.3 
I.I 

1-5 


28.1 
20.6 
18. 1 
17.8 

6.5 
8.2 

6.5 



2.9 

4.8 

7.4 

3.6 

4.7 

1.8 

2.7 


26.8 
21.0 

17.5 

19. 1 

6.7 

9.2 

6.2 
3-5 
3-8 
5.0 
8.0 
4-4 
5-0 
2.0 

3-2 


32.4 

23-7 

21.5 

21.8 

7.0 

9.9 

6.9 

5-8 

4.0 

5-4 
10. 

4-7 
5.8 
2.1 
3.6 




K 

L 

M 

N 








No. of Pupils . . . 


89 


162 


171 


219 


236 


243 


Total 1 1 20 



scores attained by the public school children of Cleveland. 
The Boise scores are represented by the solid bars, the 
Cleveland scores by the broken bars. It may be said in 
general that the Boise third and fourth grades make higher 
scores, set by set, than do the Cleveland third and fourth 
grades; that there is very little difference between the me- 
dian scores of the two cities for the fifth and sixth grades, 
except in test H, where Cleveland makes much the better 
showing; and that the Cleveland seventh and eighth grades 
appear to make better median scores in a majority of the 
sets than do the Boise seventh and eighth grades. Of the 
78 median scores compared there are 40 in which the chil- 



no 



The Boise Survey 




Fig. 19. Comparison of the Median Scores in Boise 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



III 



VIII 

VII 

VI 

V 

IV 



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4.0 



4 7 

aa 

4X7 
Z9 
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'SerO. fJDDITION 
54|Hi 



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VII 
VI 
IV 

111 

SET 

VIII 

VII 

VI 

V 

IV 

VIII 

VII 

VI 

V 

IV 



5.7 
5.0 
A.9 

4.4 

4.1 

4.otD 

JLP 

52 



DIV/JION 



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2.3 

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Jf^r M. ADDITION 

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5.i 
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4.4 
4.7 

4.3 

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2-5 3 



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VII 
VI 
IV 



SET N. 
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2.6 
2.0 
2.0 
18 
J.7 
M 
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VN 
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V 



r/?/7CT/0/VS 



I BOISE MEDiaN 3CORES 



3 CL EVEUiNO MEOMN SCOftBS 



20 



WITH Similar Scores Attained in Cleveland 



112 The Boise Survey 

dren of the Boise schools made higher scores, 34 in which 
they made lower scores, and 4 in which they made the same 
score as the children of the same grades in the Cleveland 
schools. 

5. Comparison of Boise with Three Other Cities 

In Table 26 comparison is made between the median 
scores by grades in Sets H, K, L, M, and O, for Boise, 
Cleveland, Grand Rapids, and St. Louis. Sets H and O are 
fractions; Set K is of long division where three-place and 
four-place numbers are divided by two-place numbers; in 
Set L, four-place numbers are multiplied by two-place num- 
bers; in Set M, four columns of five figures each are to 
be added. 

When we compare Boise's record in Set H with that of 
the other three cities, we find that Boise occupies fourth 
place, while St. Louis occupies first place. The record of 
the St. Louis fourth grade, a median of 7.3 examples solved, 
is 1.5 examples higher than the Boise eighth-grade record. 
If we assume that the results attained in Set H by the Cleve- 
land and Grand Rapids schools represent a reasonable stand- 
ard of achievement, it is apparent that Boise is attaining 
very unsatisfactory results, while St. Louis is probably 
spending too much time on the subject of fractions. 

In Set K, Cleveland occupies first place, Boise and St. 
Louis are about equal, and Grand Rapids makes the poorest 
showing. In fairness to the three last-named cities it should 
be said, however, that the examples used in Set K in the 
Cleveland survey were easier than the examples for Set 
K in the revised test used in Grand Rapids, St. Louis, and 
Boise. The development of ability to handle problems in 
long division seems to be quite consistent from grade to 
grade in all four cities. 

In the multiplication of four-place numbers by two-place 
numbers (Set L), St. Louis again occupies first place, Boise 
and Grand Rapids make records that are about equal, 
and Cleveland is at the bottom. 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



113 



TABLE 26 

Comparing Median Scores by Grades in Sets "H," "K," "L," "M," 
AND "O," FOR Boise, Cleveland, Grand Rapids, and St. Louis Schools 

Set H, Simple Fractions 



Name of City 


Boise 


Cleveland 


Grand 
Rapids 


St. Louis 


Median Scores 












by Grades 












4 


0.0 


0.0 


0.0 


7.3 




5 


3-7 


5-0 


6.3 


5.7 




6 


0.0 


5-5 


6.5 


8.1 




7 


3-5 


7-7 


7.8 


9.6 




8 


5.8 


8.5 


8.8 


II. 4 





Set K, Long Division 



4 

5 

6 

7 

8 


2>-^ 
5-5 
7-4 
8.0 

lO.O 




Set L, Multiplication, Two Place 



4 
5 
6 

7 
8 




Set M, Addition, 4 Columns, 5 Figures Each 



4 

5 

6 

7 

8 


3.8 
4-3 
4-7 
50 
5-8 


2-5 
3-2 

3-8 
4.4 
51 


2-3 

4.4 
5-7 


31 
3-5 
4-3 
4-7 
5-3 



114 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 26 {continued) 
Set O, Fractions, All Operations 




Boise occupies first place in the comparisons for Set M, 
addition of four columns of five figures each, and requiring 
the carrying forward of results. St. Louis and Grand 
Rapids make records that are about equal, while Cleveland 
comes last again. 

Set O requires addition, division, subtraction, and multi- 
plication of fractions. St. Louis occupies first place, Cleve- 
land and Grand Rapids are about equal, and Boise is last. 
The St. Louis sixth grade makes a better score than the 
Boise eighth grade in this set. 

If Boise had made an inferior record in a majority of 
the sets when compared to the records of the other three 
cities, it might be possible to explain the failure in dealing 
with fractions on the ground of the nine weeks' interruption 
of school activities on account of the influenza epidemic 
during the school year 191 8-19. But since Boise's record 
compares favorably with the records of the other three 
cities in all the sets, except the two sets involving fractions, 
it is apparent that the failure here is due to some cause that 
can be eliminated by proper teaching and supervision. The 
treatment of fractions is the outstanding weakness of the 
Boise schools so far as the subject of arithmetic is con- 
cerned. 



Efficiency of the Instruction 115 

6. Results by Schools 

Median scores by grades for each school in each test set 
are included in Table 27. The general results shown in 
Tables 25 and 26 are useful as revealing the status of the 
Boise public schools when compared with the schools of 
other cities in regard to progress in arithmetic. Table 27 
is of much greater interest to Boise teachers and school 
officials, because it discloses the results, set by set, for each 
grade and in each school where the tests were given. Thus 
a third-grade teacher in the Whittier School is enabled to 
compare the median scores attained by her pupils in the 
four sets of examples with the scores of all the other third 
grades taking the tests and also with the city medians for 
that grade. 

The Longfellow School fourth grade makes a median score 
of 7.8 examples in Set H, while all the other fourth grades, 
except the Whittier, make median scores of o. In fact, 
the record of the Longfellow School in Set H supports the 
contention that proper methods and supervision in the teach- 
ing of fractions would have brought Boise's record up to 
that of the other cities. Longfellow's grades make the fol- 
lowing scores in Set H: fourth, 7.8; fifth, 8.0; sixth, 4.0; 
seventh, 9.0; eighth, 10.2, or about the equivalent of the 
median scores made by the St. Louis schools. Contrast the 
Longfellow scores in Set H with the scores made by Park 
School, which were: fourth, o; fifth, 2.5; sixth, o; seventh, 
o; eighth, o. Certainly the responsibility for such extreme 
differences in median scores must be laid to inadequate 
teaching and supervision. 

Differences that exist between grades in the same school 
may be illustrated by the contrast between the results at- 
tained by all the grades in the Longfellow School, except 
the sixth. When the median scores earned by the fourth, 
fifth, seventh, and eighth grades of the Longfellow School 
are compared with the scores of the other schools, set by set, 
Longfellow ranks i, 2, or 3, consistently, but when it comes 
to the Longfellow sixth grade the rank is 7. 



ii6 



The Boise Survey 



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Efficiency of the Instruction 



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00 ^'tOvt^M 

vdvd»d>d io>o r- 


vd 


t>. IT) CO t^ li^O «0 

r^vdodvdod d-od 

M M M M H M W 


00 


<s <soo t^c^r^p^ 

d^^^od^dvd w vd 


od 


t^ rt »1 N 


d 


wt^O 1>.0 M 

d *d ri t^od t^ d 

to f* CO <N N " CO 


00 


Whittier 

Park 

Garfield 

Longfellow 

Central 

Washington 

Lowell 


c 
•i 

i 


3 



W 00 T}. too 

cOfOcOco ci 


CO 




0000 vo t^co 
M c< fi M M 





4o lOCOO 





M OW «0 

tA Tfto 4 4 


4 


M ^t-oo 
d\did> 1^00 




od 


H Ol«0«0N 



10 


^. T 1" '^'° 

«0 CO 4 CO 4 


00 

CO 


■* « 

d "*d>cAM 


10 

CO 


00 coo ■* 

10 t>.\0 >o\0 


>d 


00000 lOM 

od odod d 

M M 


» 


WO 1^ t CO 


vd 


18.0 
18.2 
21.4 
19.2 
20.0 


d« 


0000 « «o 
vdvd M t^od 

tH M M W M 




lo-d-ioO 





v> ■* 

M M CO W to 


00 
vd 


Park 

Garfield 

Longfellow 

Central 

LoweU 


C 





ii8 



The Boise Survey 



1i 

1 ^ 

[£] CO 



O ^trtTt w 

to PO 't fO I's 






■4 rj- »t •^ trt 



00 O O O w 



u^vO lA VO »A) 



fO *^ ^ <^ ^ 



O M <M «0« 

6 -o o>oo 



vO t^vO >o t^ 



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vO VO t>- t^ t^ 



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6 d 



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-^^g^s 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



119 



Table 28 shows the ranks attained by each of the seven 
schools in their sixth grades. The final rank for each 
school's sixth grade was worked out by adding together the 
ranks attained by the sixth grade of each school in each set, 
and considering that school as ranking first the sum of 
whose ranks was least. Thus the sum of the ranks attained 
by the sixth grade of the Lowell School was 34, while the 
sum of the ranks of the Longfellow School's sixth grade 
was ^2>' Lowell is given rank i, and Longfellow, rank 7. 
By treating the results in all the grades of all the schools in 
the manner illustrated in Table 28, it was possible to arrive 
at an approximation of the relative standings of the seven 
schools where the arithmetic test was given; i.e., Lowell, i; 
Longfellow, 2; Garfield, 3; Central, 4; Washington, 5; 
Whittier, 6; and Park, 7. 

TABLE 28 

Showing Rank Order of Schools in Each Set of Tests for Sixth 

Grades 





Sets of Tests 


Final 
Rank 


School 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I 


J 


K 


L 


M 


N 





Whittier. . 
Park . . . 
Garfield . . 
Longfellow 
Central . . 
Washington 
Lowell . . 


2 

7 
I 
6 
4 
5 
3 


3 
4 

I 

7 
6 
2 


2 
5 
3 

7 
6 

I 

4 


5 
7 
4 
6 
2 
I 
3 


2 
7 
4 
5 
6 

3 
I 


6 
4 
3 
7 
5 
2 
I 


7 
4 
2 

5 
6 

I 
3 


4 
7 
6 
2 
5 
3 
I 


6 

7 
2 

4 
5 
3 

I 


5 
3 
2 

7 
6 

4 

I 


7 
5 
I 
4 
3 
6 
2 


6 
2 
3 

7 
4 
5 

I 


5 
3 
4 
6 

7 

I 
2 


7 
4 
I 
6 
2 
5 
3 


7 
2 
6 
4 
I 
5 
3 


(6) 
(5) 
(2) 
(7) 
(4) 
(3) 
(i) 



120 The Boise Survey 

y. Individual Differences 

Figure 20 shows the differences in scores earned by the 
seventh-grade pupils of the Park School in each set of the 
arithmetic test. Thus in Set A, the number of examples 
solved ranged from 13 to 39; in Set B, from 11 to 40; in 
Set C, from 9 to 30; in Set D, from 4 to 28, etc. 

A distribution of scores representing total number of 
examples solved in the time allowed by each pupil accord- 
ing to the chronological ages of the pupils disclosed the 
following: 

Chronological age: ii years 12 years 13 years 14 years 15 years 
Total No. examples: i49 i4i 13S 123 95 

Inasmuch as the 11 -year-olds in the seventh grade are accel- 
erated, and the 15-year-olds are retarded, for that grade, it 
appears that individual differences within a given grade are 
primarily due to differences in native ability rather than to 
differences in training. 

This idea is further illustrated in Table 29, which gives in 
detail the scores made by the pupils solving the greatest and 
least number of examples in the seventh grade of the Park 
School. Here it appears that a girl 12 years, 11 months of 
age solved 225 examples in 22 minutes of working time, or 
10.2 examples per minute, while a boy 15 years and i month 
of age, repeating the 7B grade, solved 78 examples in 22 
minutes working time, or 3.5 examples per minute. 

Figure 21, where the two scores just referred to are shown 
with reference to the city median scores for the seventh 
grade, shows how wide apart these two pupils were in every 
set of examples except Set i, where they both made a score 
of 2 examples correctly solved. The scores of the lowest 
pupil correspond almost exactly to the median scores for the 
fourth grade, while the scores of the highest pupil are equal 
to or above the medians for the eighth grade, except in Set I. 
Here, then, are pupils in the same school grade who are fully 
four grades apart in arithmetical ability. 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



121 




(M CD/am INDICffT£0 BY PROJECTIONS ON S/DSJ OP OffRSj 



AIBCDEFSHJ J K L M N O 



Fig. 20. Individual Ditferences of 31 7B Pupils in Park School, Show- 
ing Lowest and Highest Scores Made in Each Set 



122 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 29 

Showing Individual Differences within the Seventh Grade 
Park School 





Sets of Tests 




A 


B 


c 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


I 


J 


K 


L 


M 


N 





Highest 7th 
































Grade Score 


37 


40 


26 


28 


9 


17 


10 


5 


2 


8 


16 


8 


10 


4 


5 


City Medians 
































for 7 th Grade 


26.8 


21.0 


17-5 


19. 1 


6.7 


9.2 


6.2 


3-5 


3.8 


S-o 


8.0 


4.4 


S.o 


2.0 


3-2 


Lowest 7th 
































Grade Score 


20 


IS 


9 


12 


2 


5 


4 





2 





4 


2 


2 





I 



Total number of examples solved in time allowed by highest pupil, 225 



(( « « u 



lowest 



78 



Age of pupil making highest score, 12 yrs., 11 months; grade, high 7th 
" lowest " 15 " I " " low 7th 



« (< << 



The existence of such individual differences as have just 
been discussed suggests the necessity for a more scientific 
system of grading and classification than is to be found in 
the majority of our school systems. The use of intelligence 
tests as a basis for classifying and grading pupils according 
to ability would undoubtedly be one of the features of such 
an improved system. An immediate need for ungraded 
rooms for special cases like these is obvious. 



8. Accuracy 

In all the preceding tables medians have been based on 
the number of examples correctly solved and no account has 
been taken of "attempts." A few words should be said 
regarding the relation between "attempts" and "rights." As 
a means of illustrating this relationship the median number 
of "attempts" and the median number of "rights" for each 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



123 




B C 



DEF 6 HI K LMNO 
NiOf^Fjr JCO/SSS, BRAD£ V/t. P/^ffJC SCHOOL 
• LOWE'S T ,SCO/?£S, 6fZffD£ V//, P/tlSf€ SCHOOL 
-MEDMN JCORSJ FOR EAfrtRE Cf T/^ ORaOE Vff 



Fig. 



Comparing Lowest and Highest 7th-GRADE Score in the Park 
School with City Median 



124 



The Boise Survey 



grade in Sets M and O in three schools where tests were 
given to all grades from fourth to eighth inclusive, were 
worked out. The results are shown in Figure 22. 

In the fundamental operations, represented by Set M, the 
percentage of accuracy is very much higher for all the grades 
than in the complex operations, represented by Set O. For 
Set M the percentage of accuracy ranges from 68.0 to 78.4, 
while in Set O the range of accuracy is from 15.0 per cent 
in the fifth grade to 40.6 per cent in the eighth grade. Since 
success in solving problems involving fractions seems to 
depend more on "knowing how" than on routine drill, the 
maturity of the pupils is a fundamental item to be taken 
into account in teaching methods and organization of 
subject matter in arithmetic. There would probably be no 
appreciable loss in ability to handle fractions in the eighth 



10 































,-'-' 








,,.--' 


--- 


mT£:MPT6 


^ ^ * -"• 






^^^ 











^ 






■^"^^^ 


























SET 'M' 











IV V VI VII VIII 

Fig. 22. Showing the Median Number of "Attempts" and the Median Num- 



Efficiency of the Instruction 



125 



grade if their introduction into the courses in arithmetic 
should be postponed until the beginning of the sixth grade. 



SUMMARY 

1. The general record of Boise in the arithmetic test when 
compared to that of other cities where the same test has been 
applied is very good, the most important exceptions being 
in Sets H and O, which deal with fractions. 

2. The differences that exist between schools as shown 
by their records in the arithmetic test point to the necessity 
of using standard rather than local tests in determining the 







ATTEMPTS 


"*. 






9 

ft 






---. 
















7 








^v 


,-' 












5' 






















9 












♦) 
















RIGHT 




/ 




( . 




D 


jrr "o" 






. 




i> 


/ \ 


f V 


1 V 


1 v/// 



BEE OF "Rights" for Each Grade in Sets M and O in Three Schools 



126 The Boise Survey 

efficiency of teaching methods. The results of such tests 
should be carefully studied by individual teachers and super- 
visors, with a view to revising and improving their own 
classroom procedure in arithmetic. 

3. The uneven results secured in the tests involving frac- 
tions suggest the necessity for improvement in the technique 
of handling that phase of the study of arithmetic, and also 
the possibility of postponing the introduction of fractions 
until the 5A or 6B grades. 

4. The intimate connection between native endowment 
and success in the complicated operations of arithmetic em- 
phasizes the necessity for the use of psychological tests as 
an aid in the more scientific grading and classification of 
the pupils in our public schools. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Chapter IV described Boise's curriculum and indicated 
the time cost of the various subjects. The results of tests 
here reported indicate the extent of Boise's success in teach- 
ing three different subjects and at the same time bring to 
light the weak and strong points in these three lines of in- 
struction. The suggestions are obvious, that these subjects 
are not properly supervised; that no common aim domi- 
nates the instruction in the various classrooms; and that 
the time cost of these results has not been properly con- 
sidered. In fact, when Grade 8 in one school makes a score 
of 68 in spelling, while in another school the same grade 
makes 83, one must conclude that the term "grade" has 
little meaning in practice. 

It is accordingly recommended that more real super- 
vision of instruction be provided for; that teachers and 
supervisors carry on studies similar to those here reported, 
to the end that the grade and class organization of the 
schools shall be thoroughly checked up; that some kind of 
special classes be provided for handling the many pupils 
who are so far below standard- that special attention also 



Efficiency of the Instruction 127 

be given to the children who are so much above standard; 
that the content of the curriculum be thoroughly revised 
and reorganized; and finally that serious consideration be 
given to the relation of time allotment to results achieved 
in the classroom. 



CHAPTER VI 

PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN 
IN THE SCHOOLS 

(Williams) 

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE PUPILS 

LIKE most other cities, the schools of Boise group the 
pupils in the elementary schools into sixteen grades, 
each of which represents a half-year's work. The efficiency 
of the schools in holding pupils through this series of grades 
is indicated in a general way by the relative enrollment as 
we pass up the scale from the first grade to the high school. 
The holding power of the Boise schools is more effective 
than in most cities, as evidenced by the fact that while the 
entering class contains 199 pupils, there are 145 pupils com- 
pleting the last work preparatory to entering high school. 
This maintenance of an even enrollment is a highly com- 
mendable feature of the school system, and is complimentary 
to the community. Figure 23 shows the percentages of the 
city's children who are retarded, at age, and accelerated, 
respectively. 

The distribution of the pupils by ages and grades is shown 
in Table 30. This table includes 2502 pupils, representing 
the enrollment in May, 1919, compiled from data furnished 
by the teachers. The heavy lines running diagonally down 
the table, from left to right, enclose the numbers which 
represent pupils who are "at age," meaning that they are 
in the grade in which they should be expected to be, ac- 
cording to commonly accepted age-grade standards. These 
pupils may be said to be making normal progress, in so far 
as their rate of progress can be inferred from their present 
location. This group includes, for the first grade, all the 

128 



Progress of the Children in the Schools 129 




RCTf]RDED23.9% /^T^GE 40.6 % 



^CCELER/^rSD 3S.a 



Fig. 23. Extent of Acceleration, Normal Progress, and Retardation 
IN Boise Schools in May, 1919 

pupils who are between 6^ and 8 years of age; for the second 
grade, those who are between 7^ and 9 years, etc. It as- 
sumes the entering of school at about 7 and completing the 
grades during the fourteenth year. The "at age'' group 
contains 1012 pupils, or about 40 per cent of the entire en- 
rollment. This would suggest that the standard is fair, and 
that it can be closely followed by most of the pupils, accord- 
ing to the present standards of instruction and promotion. 



ACCELERATED PUPILS 

The numbers above the diagonal lines in Table 30 repre- 
sent the pupils who are beyond the grades in which the 
expectations would place them, for their ages. This group 
includes 894 pupils, or nearly 36 per cent of the entire en- 
rollment. The extent of the acceleration is indicated by the 
distance above the upper diagonal Hne. Thus the child who 
is represented as being in the second half of the first grade 
at less than six years of age, is advanced two years beyond 
those in the same grade who are just making the expected 
progress. Six pupils are completing the latter half of the 
eighth grade at twelve years, which also represents two 
years' acceleration. Most of the rapid group, however, are 
but slightly above the normal-progress lines, and it will be 
seen that no pupil is advanced more than two years. From 
Table 31 it is evident that the tendency to be two years ad- 
vanced increases toward the eighth grade, while the ten- 
dency to be one year advanced decreases. 

It appears that these pupils are accelerated not by reason 
of the accident of entering school earlier than the other 



I30 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 30 
Age-Grade Distribution in Boise Public Schools, May, i^ig 



Ages of Pupils in 
Years and Months 


Grade 

I 


Grade 
2 


Grade 
3 


Grade 
4 


Grade 
S 


Grade 
6 


Grade 

7 


Grade 
8 


Tot. 




B 


A 


B 


A 


B 


A 


B 


A 


B 


A 


B 


A 


B 


A 


B 


A 


~ 




Under 5 Years 






5-0 to 5-5 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 






5-6 to 5-1 1 . . . . 


T6 


I 
II 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


57 
131 
140 
.156 
J44 
140 
171 
149 
i6o 
149 
148 
161 
151 
164 
126 
116 
84 
63 
46 
34 




6-0 to 6-5 




— 








— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




6-6 to 6-1 1 .... 


1 




t 






























7-0 to 7-5 


12 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




7-6 to 7-1 1 .... 


— g 


24 


15 
28. 

- 

I20 


4 
8 

l! 


I 

39 




— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




— 


— 




I 
3 
24 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




— 


— 




8-0 to 8-5 




8-6 to 8-11 .... 


_s 

3 


I 



5 


^16 


I 
4 
18 

20 

_9 

5 

_3 

2 

I 
I 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 






2 
24 

12 
II 

_6 
2 

2 

I 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




9-0 to Q-s 




9-6 to 9-11 .... 


I 
I 


I 
2 

I 


3 
I 
2 


5 

-J 

I 


22. 
9 

I 


18 

_8 
2 

4 
I 
2 


51 

26 
17 

_8 

7 

__S 

I 
I 
2 
2 


II 
10 

I 

4 

I 
I 


I 

IS 
26 

21 

II 

7 
3 

2 
2 














I 

7 

18 

17 
_8 
_S 

4 
_5 

1 


— 


— 


— 


— 




lo-o to lo-s .... 




— 


— 


— 


— 




10-6 to lO-II . . . 




Is 

IS 

28 
28 
5 

8 
6 

2 

I 
I 


~7 
17 

31 

27 

6 

6 

_6 

I 


10 

IS 

_8 
10 


5 
8 

25 

13 

_s 

I 

1 




ii-o to 11-5 .... 




II— 6 to II— II 






— 


— 





— 


I 




12-0 to 12-S .... 




12-6 to 12-11 . . . 


— 


I 











— 


— 










— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 










— 


— 





— 


— 


— 




14-0 to 14-5 .... 




14-6 to 14-11 . . . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 







jc— to 15—5 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 












— 


— 





— 


— 





— 




15-6 to 15-11 . . . 




16—0 to 16—5 




— 


— 


— 


— 








— 


— 









— 


— 


— 


— 


— 





— 





— 


— 





— 




16-6 to 16-11 






— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 





— 





I 




1 7-0 to 1 7-.S • ■ . . 




17—6 to 17— 1 1 




— 


— 


— 


— 








— 





— 





— 


— 


— 






— 


— 


— 


— 


— 





— 








— 





— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




18-0 to 18-5 .... 




18-6 to 18-11 




— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 








— 






















!_: 


Z 


ii-i 


i: 


~. 


— 


— 







— 





— 


— 


— - 


— 


— 







19-0 to 19-5 • • • . 




— 





— 


— 





— 


— 


— 


— 


— 







19—6 to 19— II 






199 

46 


^3 
6^ 


121 
37 
_64 

20 


69 

68 
28 


139 
43 
62 
34 


172 

55 

ll 
35 





— 


— 


— 





— 


— 


— 


— 


— 







20 and over .... 




153 
_53 
_S7 
43 


76^ 

_62 

59 
48 


lis 

_Si 

41 


78^ 
72 

_8i 
34 


139 

47 
49 
43 


149 

-14 

41 


£37 

_5? 
_48 

37 


I's; 

_86 
50 
46 


114 

42 

_^ 
34 


145 

52 

37 


2502 
_894 
1012 
596 




Totals 

Accelerated .... 




At age 

Retarded 


117 
36 


39 





pupilo, but because they have been found capable of more 
advanced work than most of the children of the same age. 



Progress of the Children in the Schools 131 



TABLE 31 

Extent of Acceleration and Retardation by Grades 



Accelerated 2 Years. 
Accelerated i Year . 



At Age 



Retarded i Year . 

Retarded 2 Years 

Retarded 3 Years 

Retarded 4 Years 

Retarded 5 Years 



Totals 



I 
109 

197 

51 
18 

4 

I 
I 



382 



106 

132 

12 
3 



286 



4 
94 

144 

54 

II 

4 



311 



5 
no 

116 

55 
23 

7 
5 

I 



322 



12 
116 

132 

52 
16 

5 
2 



325 



14 

87 

103 

54 

19 

8 

2 

I 



16 
122 

98 

52 
26 

4 
I 



319 



21 

77 

90 

54 
16 



259 



Total 



73 

821 

1012 

405 

141 

36 

II 

3 



2502 



They have been permitted to ''skip" grades, or to be pro- 
moted into a higher grade before the usual promotion time. 
They thus become a valuable asset to the schools and to 
the community, not only because of their superior ability, 
but because the schools have recognized this ability and 
have given it an opportunity for expression where it can 
operate most effectively. 

Some of the most important developments in public edu- 
cation in recent years have been founded upon the variability 
of children of the same age. The promotion of pupils ac- 
cording to their capacities is a commendable practice, and 
should be further encouraged. If a child is capable of com- 
pleting the eight years of work in six years, it is to his advan- 
tage and to the advantage of the schools that he be permitted 
and encouraged to do so. The promotion of pupils on the 
basis of intelligence tests, as suggested in another chapter of 
this report, will serve to bring about a better distribution 
through the grades. 



132 



The Boise Survey 



RETARDED PUPILS 

Referring again to the age-grade distribution table (30), 
the numbers below the diagonal lines represent the pupils 
who are behind their class in point of age. The extent of 
the deviation from the normal section represents the degree 
of retardation, each space in the vertical columns repre- 
senting a half-year. For example, the two pupils in Grade 
3 A who are more than 12^ years of age are three years re- 
tarded, being six spaces removed from the 82 children who 
are of the normal age for that grade. 

In the amount of retardation Boise ranks high in com- 
parison with other cities. Figure 24, in which a number of 
American cities are compared, shows the position of Boise 
in this respect. In most cities it has been found that about 
one third of the pupils are retarded. In Boise the propor- 
tion is 23.5 per cent, or less than one fourth. In some com- 
munities as many as one half of the pupils are retarded, but 
in most western cities steps have been taken in recent years 
to bring these laggards up to grade and thus to reduce the 
amount of retardation, with its undesirable consequences. 



EXTENT OF RETARDATION 

It will be seen from the accompanying tables that re- 
tardation is common to all the grades. It increases up to 



TABLE 32 

Number and Percentage of Retarded Pupils by Grades 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Total 


Total Enrollment . . 
Number Retarded . 
Per Cent Retarded . 


382 

75 
19.6 


286 

48 

16.8 


311 
69 

22.2 


322 
28.2 


335 

75 

22.4 


288 

84 

29.2 


319 

83 

26.0 


259- 

71 

27.0 


2502 

596 

23.5 



Progress of the Children in the Schools 133 



PER CENT 

QUINCV.MASS. 

BOISE.IDAHO 

RACINE, WIS. 
AMSTERDAM. N.Y 
OANBURY.CONN. 
ELMIRA.NY 
NEWROCHELLE.NY 
MUSKEGON, MICH. 
NIAGARA FALLS, N.Y. 
DANVILLE, ILL. 
PLAINFIELD. N.J. 
PERTH AM BOY, N.J. 


> t,o g 


30 4,0 30 ao T,o ao so ,<, 







■■■PJ^I 


N — \ — ^ — ^ — ; — \ — \ — ; 


BBjSB 




B5p5 


s 


^ 


■■^■■1 


■■ 


■ 


Hli^lH 


HB 


^M 


B 


s 




\ \ \ \ \ \ 


HAZELTON. PA. 
KENOSHA, WIS. 
MONTCLAIR, N.J. 
BUTTE. MONT. 

PERCENT 


^^I^^S 


io ' 


'0 Jio c'o Vo 1/0 f'o id 






Fig. 24, Retardation in American Cities 



the sixth grade, and thereafter falls off slightly, probably on 
account of the dropping out of retarded pupils in the upper 
grades. The smallest proportions, as might be expected, 
are found in the first two grades. 

Tables 31 and 32 summarize, by grades, the extent of re- 
tardation and acceleration. While the amount of retardation 
is in part compensated by the amount of acceleration, each 
expressed in gross quantities, it should be noted that the 
extent of the downward distribution is greater than that 
of the upward distribution. The greater proportion of each 
group deviates but one year from the limit of normal prog- 
ress ; and while only 8 per cent of the rapid group are accel- 
erated more than one year, 52 per cent of the slow group are 
retarded more than one year. This fact should be taken 
into consideration in any comparison of age-grade statistics. 
The number of accelerated, normal and retarded pupils is 
shown by schools, by grades and for the city as a whole in 
Table ZZ- 

RESULTS OF RETARDATION 

If the pupils of any classroom in Boise should be stood in 
a line, arranged in order of age, from the youngest to the old- 



134 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE zz 

Acceleration, Normal Progress, and Retardation by Whole 
Grades and by Schools 







Accelerated Group 












I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Total 


Central 

Garfield 

Hawthorne 

Lincohi 

Longfellow 

Lowell 

Park 

Washington 

Whittier 


lO 

13 
6 

13 
18 
II 

9 

8 

22 


14 
II 

4 
12 

17 

II 

6 

17 
14 


ID 

9 
6 

5 
IS 

6 
18 
10 
19 


9 
8 

3 

14 
19 
II 

19 
17 
15 


14 

15 

5 

9 

24 

15 
21 

14 
II 


14 

7 

14 

8 

10 

22 

17 

9 


51 

7 

40 
16 

24 


38 
10 

19 
12 

19 


160 
80 
24 
67 

160 
92 

138 
83 
90 


Totals 


no 


106 


98 


115 


128 


lOI 


130 


98 


894 





Normal 


Progr 


ess Group 












I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Total 


Central 

Garfield 

Hawthorne 

Lincoln 

Longfellow ..... 

Lowell 

Park 

Washington 

Whittier 


16 
23 
15 
14 
26 

14 
34 
34 
21 


16 

13 
10 

7 
16 

14 
17 
23 
16 


15 
14 
II 
12 

19 
18 
18 
23 

14 


13 
10 

9 

7 

20 

13 

25 

9 

10 


17 

14 

6 

7 
26 
10 
18 
17 
17 


12 
19 

9 
19 

8 
18 

5 
13 


20 
9 

21 
21 


29 
9 

24 
18 
10 


138 

III 

51 

S6 

171 

116 

167 

III 

91 


Totals 


197 


132 


144 


116 


132 


103 


98 


90 


1012 



Progress of the Children in the Schools 135 



TABLE Zd, {continued) 
Retarded Group 





I 


2 


3 


^ 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Total 


Central 

Garfield 

Hawthorne 

Lincoln 

Longfellow 

Lowell 

Park 

Washington 

Whittier 


10 
8 
6 

4 
II 

5 

19 
8 

4 


4 
4 
6 

5 

5 

12 

9 
3 


3 
5 
3 
6 
6 
8 
16 
15 
7 


10 

14 

13 

7 

9 

7 

13 

13 

5 


6 

10 
8 
8 
8 
8 

14 
12 

I 


8 
6 

12 
14 

4 
19 
17 

4 


22 
9 

27 

7 
18 


13 
12 

17 
10 

19 


72 
68 
34 
43 
97 
54 
130 
74 
24 


Totals 


75 


48 


69 


91 


75 


84 


83 


71 


596 



All Schools 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Total 


Accelerated .... 
Normal Progress . . 
Retarded 


no 
197 

75 


106 

132 

48 


98 

144 

69 


115 
116 

91 


128 

132 

75 


lOI 

103 
84 


138 
98 
83 


98 
90 
71 


894 

1012 

596 


Total 


382 


286 


311 


322 


335 


288 


319 


259 


2502 



est, and each decorated with a placard indicating his age, 
some of the difficulties of group instruction would be indi- 
cated to any observer. A class of 7A pupils, for example, 
might include pupils all the way from 10 to 17 years of age 
— a range nearly equal to the span covered by the entire 
elementary school course. In some cases, as is pointed out 
in another chapter, the mental capacity range in single 
classrooms is nearly as great. 



136 



The Boise Survey 



35 
30 
25 

20, 

0. 










i 




















































1 




















. 


























^ 




















1 


1 
















10 k 









■ 


















ll 


ll 


j^ 




^ 


n 


7h 


& 


efi 


9 


"Qfi 


10 


lOli 


II 


tin 


12 


I2J4 


ra 


Mli 


MTi 



Fig. 25. Age Distribution of Pupils in Grade 4B 

In Figure 25 the age-range of pupils in Grade 4B is shown 
graphically. The youngest pupil is 7^; the oldest is 14. 
While this is not a single room, it nevertheless represents the 
range of ages among the pupils in Boise who are doing the 
same kind of work, and within the same period of time. The 
pupils to the left of the chart, up to 9 years of age, are 
young for their class. The pupils to the right, above 10 
years of age, are over-age for their class. Many of these 
older pupils are doubtless repeating the work, some of them 
for the second or third time. Others are merely behind in 
their progress due to sickness or other causes. Others are 
behind simply because they lack the capacity to do the 
work. 

Whatever the reasons for this wide distribution, the 
effects are noticeable throughout the schools. Large, over- 
grown pupils are in association with younger pupils. This is 
not necessarily an undesirable condition, but it would work 
better for social advancement if pupils of equal ability and 
equal experience associated in their work. Backward pupils 
often carry an attitude of indifference, which is psychologi- 
cally bad for the school. The bringing of retarded pupils 



Progress of the Children in the Schools 137 

up to grade constitutes a definite social and educational con- 
tribution on the part of the teacher who accomplishes the 
act. This refers, of course, to the actual improvement of 
the pupil, and not merely to passing him along to the next 
grade irrespective of his achievements. 

A still more important result of retardation and slow 
progress is the loss of pupils from the schools because of 
discouragement. Many pupils drop out of school at the 
sixth or seventh grade. The reason given is usually one 
more justifiable than discouragement, yet it is evident in 
many cases that the pupil would have continued in school 
had he felt the encouragement of success. The present 
value placed on education in every line of practical endeavor 
makes it an urgent duty of the schools to carry all pupils 
as far as their mental capacity permits. The school should 
be made more attractive than the competing offers from the 
commercial world. 

CAUSES OF RETARDATION 

Probably the most common cause of school retardation is 
retarded mental development. There are often other accom- 
panying conditions, some of which may appear to be the 
immediate cause. If a mentally retarded boy is also physi- 
cally handicapped, the physical defect, because it is more 
easily observed, is likely to be assigned as the cause. In- 
vestigations with intelligence tests among public school 
children have shown that pupils can do successfully only 
work which is within the limits of their intelligence. Sixth- 
grade work, for example, which requires approximately 
twelve-year intelligence, cannot be done well by a child 
whose mental development is but ten years. 

Among the "laggards" shown in the age-grade table, and 
especially among the more seriously retarded pupils, will 
be found many who are really up to grade if their mental 
ages were used as the basis of reckoning. On the other 
hand, among this same group of laggards may be found some 
who are really capable of doing the work of a higher grade, 



138 The Boise Survey 

but who are being held back merely for the sake of the 
formal requirements of the school. 

A recent investigation by Dr. Lewis M. Terman^ found 
that children who are in grades corresponding to their men- 
tal ages are doing work of an average quality. The stand- 
ards for mental age-grade classification are approximately 
the same as the basis on which we have calculated the age- 
grade distribution for the Boise schools. Where children 
fall below these mental standards, they are usually found 
to be incapable of doing the work of their normal classmates, 
without special individual instruction. Dr. Terman also 
found that an equal injustice was being worked to children 
who are held back below the grade indicated by their intel- 
ligence. The promotion of pupils on the basis of mental age 
is likely to become the practice of the public schools of the 
future. 

Physical conditions also may cause retardation. Eye, 
ear, nose, and throat trouble, decayed teeth, etc., frequently 
prevent the normal expression of intelligence as applied to 
school work. A very large proportion of physical defects is 
found among retarded children. While there is a tendency 
to overestimate the effect of these conditions on school work, 
especially where low intelligence also is involved, it is no 
less important that all remediable defects receive the atten- 
tion of the school authorities. 

Another cause often given for retardation is poor home 
conditions. Incompetent or indifferent parents, weak super- 
vision, crowded or insanitary living quarters, poverty, etc., 
cannot contribute much to the advancement of the children. 
In some cases the children are called upon to help support 
the family. Frequently sickness and disease prevent regu- 
lar attendance. In many cases the quality of the home 
reflects the intelligence of the family. These facts may not 
be so much the cause of retardation as an accompanying 
consequence of some social cause lying further back. 

1 Terman, Lewis M., The Intelligence of School Children. Houghton 
Mifflin Company, Boston, 1919. 



Progress of the Children in the Schools 139 



(20 

no 
100 

00 
80 
10 
60 
50 
AC 
30 
20 
10 

















































































































J IX y/r/7/?j 1 sev£N vcaas 1 eiSHT vcaps \ nine veaos 


T£N YFffPJ 


ELEVEN YEa/!S 



Fig. 26. 



Ages of Children Enrolled ln Beginning Classes of Boise 
Schools 



It is surprising how little the schools know about the 
home conditions of the pupils, and of the relation between 
these conditions and school progress. The bringing of the 
home and the school into closer relationship cannot fail to 
help in correcting the bad effects of retardation. 

Late entering of school does not appear to have been a 
serious factor in causing retardation in Boise. The dis- 
tribution of ages indicated by Figure 26 for the entering 
grade indicates that nearly all the children begin school early 
enough to allow for their continuance within the normal age 
limits through the grades. The eight, nine, and eleven-year- 
old pupils in the beginning classes are for the most part 
pupils who have entered at the usual age, but who have failed 
to pass. 

SUMMARY 

The age-grade distribution suggests that Boise occupies 
a high place among American cities with reference to the 
grading of pupils by age. The proportion of retardation is 



140 The Boise Survey 

23.5 per cent of the enrollment. This retardation, although 
of relatively small proportion, extends into i-, 2-, 3-, 4-, and 
5-year groups. The effect of seriously over-age pupils is 
detrimental to the progress of the schools. There are many 
causes for retardation, chief among which is the wide vari- 
ability of children in mental capacity. The schools should 
inquire into the specific causes for individual cases, in 
order that a proper grading and classification of pupils may 
be maintained. 



CHAPTER VII 

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AMONG 
THE CHILDREN 

(Williams) 

THE VARIABILITY OF CHILDREN 

IT is evident that the present organization of the public 
schools implies an abundance of faith in the age of a 
given child as the basis upon which his education is to pro- 
ceed. It happens, fortunately enough, that the use of this 
basis is not incorrect, scientifically. Recent psychological 
investigations have shown that mental and physical develop- 
ment proceed, in the main, with age. The average child of 
eleven years is physically and mentally ten per cent in ad- 
vance of the average child of ten years. Every year of age 
adds a year of physical growth and intelligence to the strictly 
normal child. Thus when children are grouped together by 
ages, as they are in the schools, they are also grouped, 
roughly, into comparable divisions as regards natural de- 
velopment. 

The unfortunate feature of this grouping is that the child 
who happens to be different from the other children of his 
age is required to suffer the consequences of being incor- 
rectly placed. They are the "misfits" of the existing system. 
Yet the schools exist for these children as well as for the 
great majority who are more nearly alike. It is not within 
the power of most of these exceptional children to adjust 
themselves to the system, nor is it proper that they should 
be made to do so if they could. Such children are found in 
all the grades of the Boise schools, and may have been 
pointed out by their teachers as special problems which 
cannot be effectively met by the regular school procedure. 
It is the purpose of this chapter to indicate the extent and 

141 



142 The Boise Survey 

significance of these cases, and to make some suggestions 
for adjusting the schools to meet individual needs. 

MENTAL DIFFERENCES 

A blank was submitted to all of the teachers, on which 
they were asked to indicate the intelligence of each pupil, 
classifying them into five groups. The intelligence groups 
were named and defined as follows: 

Feeble-minded. Incapable of profiting normally from public school 
instruction. Will not develop mentally above the average child of 
twelve years. 

Backward. Mentally dull, below normal, but not feeble-minded. 
With special help could receive much benefit from regular instruction. 
Average. Equal to the average child of the same age. 
Superior. Noticeably above average, among the brightest 20 per 
cent of the population. 

Very superior. Among the brightest 3 or 4 per cent of the popula- 
tion. 

Each teacher was requested to list all the pupils in her 
room, and to indicate her classification of each child. Table 
34 is a summary of the data obtained from all schools by 
grades. 

As expected, more than one half of the pupils were classi- 
fied as average, and all but a very few placed in the adjacent 
groups. The feeble-minded group includes 18 pupils, and 
the very superior group 43 pupils. These proportions were 
generally found in the classifications by individual teachers, 
and we are led to the belief that the terms were interpreted 
similarly throughout the schools. A few teachers who re- 
ported no mental differences among the pupils, making them 
all "average" or ''superior," evidently interpreted the classi- 
fication quite differently from the other teachers. The 
number of such cases was too small, however, seriously to 
affect the general classification. 

INTELLIGENCE TESTING 

The mental differences revealed by the teachers' classifi- 
cations, significant as they are, merely suggest the still more 



Individual Differences among the Children 143 



TABLE 34 
Teachers' Estimates of Intelligence, by Grades 



Grade 


Feeble- 
minded 


Backward 


Average 


Superior 


Very 
Superior 


I 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 












2 

7 
3 

2 

4 


72 
49 
42 
42 
44 
49 
54 
25 


256 
199 
201 
222 
242 
202 

234 
160 


31 
38 
40 
38 
43 
35 
36 
44 


3 
5 

10 

5 
4 
2 

3 
II 


Total . . . 


18 


377 


1716 


305 


J 
43 



important differences which are brought out by tests of in- 
telligence. The science of education is progressing so 
rapidly that the school may well seek the most accurate and 
finely graded information it is possible to obtain for each 
child. We measure the length, volume, and weight of physi- 
cal substances; we measure water, light, electricity, gas, air 
pressure, temperature, rate of travel, and many other things 
because by their measurement and evaluation we are enabled 
to use them more effectively and thus contribute to more 
efficient living. For the same reasons it is desirable to learn 
as much as possible about the intelligence of school children 
— intelligence being the most important single factor in 
their school achievement and life success. 

The measurement of intelligence has been reduced to such 
simple terms that it is within the range of all schools. The 
Binet-Simon Scale, a series of tests for this purpose, should 
be applied in all cases where decisions are necessary as to 
the mental capacity of children. It would be still more 



144 ^^^ Boise Survey 

desirable to have intelligence tests made regularly of all the 
pupils entering the schools. So much depends upon intelli- 
gence that the neglect of this important factor has handi- 
capped the education of many children. It would be a wise 
undertaking to have tests made of all pupils in the schools 
and to establish standards of classification and promotion 
upon the basis of the results obtained.^ 

SUPERIOR CHILDREN 

According to the classification made by the teachers, 348 
pupils, or about 15 per cent of the enrollment, are of su- 
perior intelligence. Of this number 43 pupils were classified 
as "very superior," their intelligence being so marked as to 
place them "among the brightest 3 or 4 per cent of the popu- 
lation." Allowing for minor errors of judgment, there is 
good reason to believe that these estimates represent as true 
an account of the facts in Boise as it would be possible to 
obtain without extensive psychological testing. 

These superior children are distributed throughout the 
city, each school and each grade having its quota. The 
majority of them are accelerated in their school progress — 
i. e., are in grades beyond average pupils of the same age. 
This accounts, in part, for the acceleration shown in the 
age-grade table. Some of them, however, are not acceler- 
ated, but are being held in the grades indicated by their 
ages. In some cases there is actual retardation of pupils 
classified as "superior" by their teachers. 

There are several reasons why some children of superior 
intelligence do not progress more rapidly in school. In some 
instances sickness or physical ailment has prevented regular 
application to school work. In some cases the pupils are 
"making up" work lost through absence or transfer. There 

1 Time did not permit the extensive use of intelligence tests during the 
survey, although a few demonstration tests were made. Two recent books 
by Dr. Lewis M. Terman, entitled The Measurement of Intelligence and 
The Intelligence of School Children, are highly recommended to those who 
wish to acquaint themselves with this work. 



Individual Differences among the Children 145 

are some superior children, as there are children of all other 
degrees of intelligence, who do not try to apply themselves 
to the fullest extent of their intelligence. Frequently parents 
object to the promotion of their children more rapidly than 
the traditional rate. Another reason, perhaps the most 
serious of all, is the failure of the schools to recognize su- 
perior mental capacity, and to assign pupils to the grades 
which are best suited to their intelligence. 

Superior children contribute a valuable asset to the school 
system and to the community. Recent investigations have 
shown that intelligence is a fairly constant factor throughout 
the growing period, and that bright children retain their 
brightness and become bright adults. The histories of many 
of our most brilliant men and women reveal the fact that 
they indicated their superiority when they were school chil- 
dren. Since it is the obligation of the schools to serve the 
community as effectively as possible, it should be considered 
a prime duty to provide educational opportunities commen- 
surate with the intelligence of each child. Among the su- 
perior children in the Boise schools are some who will be 
classed among our leaders, and even perhaps among our 
geniuses, of the future. 

If the promotion is justified by actual measurements of 
intelligence, there is no reason why superior children should 
not be advanced as rapidly as their intelligence is developing. 
In some cases this will mean advancing them until they are 
two, three, or even four grades ahead of other children of 
the same age. Parents are sometimes reluctant to agree to 
rapid promotion, fearing that the child's health will be in- 
jured by overcrowding his mind. There is, of course, grave 
danger of pushing any child to the point of extreme taxation 
of his mental processes. Overworking the mind is even 
more serious than overworking the body. It should be re- 
membered, however, that a child of eight with a mental 
development of ten years is mentally equal to the average 
child two years older than himself. It is not a mental 
burden for such a child to do the work of ten-year-olds. In 



146 The Boise Survey 

fact, it may be much more in keeping with his normal per- 
formance ability to advance him, than to keep him with the 
eight-year-olds, who are mentally two years his inferior. 
The safety valve is the psychological test in the hands of a 
qualified person. 

OPPORTUNITY CLASSES FOR GIFTED CHILDREN 

The ''skipping" of superior pupils through a series of in- 
flexible grades, while better for them than being made to 
adhere to a system which prevents the normal expression of 
their intelligence, should be considered but a temporary ex- 
pedient. The "opportunity class" for very bright children 
has now passed the stage of experimentation. Such classes 
have several advantages over the skipping system. Some of 
these, enumerated by Dr. Terman, are as follows: 

(i) They allow children to make rapid progress without skipping 
vital parts of the subject matter; 

(2) They allow a broadening and enriching of the course of study 
because of the larger accomplishments possible to superior minds; 

(3) They are a discouragement to vanity because the level of com- 
petition is raised and the measure of a child's success depends 
upon his relative standing in the class; 

(4) They insure the mental and moral training which can come 
only from sustained effort; 

(5) They furnish an atmosphere which is intellectually much more 
stimulating than that found in the average class; 

(6) Since they bring together children of similar age and attain- 
ments, they go far to solve the problem of social adjustment. 

A trial class of this kind in Boise would doubtless meet 
with success no less surprising than has been obtained in 
other cities. 

BACKV^ARD CHILDREN 

About 16 per cent of the enrollment, 377 individual pupils, 
were listed by their teachers in the "backward" group. Ac- 
cording to the instructions given, this classification includes 
those who are mentally dull, but not feeble-minded. It was 
implied that teachers should not list pupils as backward who 



Individual Differences among the Children 147 

were merely retarded in their school work, but only those 
who were slightly subnormal in mental capacity. 

"Backward" is such a vague term as it is used in schools 
that any group of pupils so designated is likely to contain 
all kinds of pupils. A few years ago the writer gave intelli- 
gence tests to groups of "backward" pupils in several Cali- 
fornia cities, and found intelligence quotients ranging from 
50 to 108, from feeble-mindedness to superior intelligence. 
It is not improbable that tests applied to the 377 "back- 
ward" pupils of Boise would reveal a similar range of intelli- 
gence. 

One reason for such a liberal use of the term "back- 
ward" is the tendency for teachers frequently to mistake 
backwardness in school subjects for mental weakness. 
While nearly all mentally dull children do have difficulty 
with their studies, there are also some normal and even su- 
perior children who fail for causes where lack of capacity 
is not involved. Another reason is the reluctance of some 
teachers to use the term "feeble-minded" to describe chil- 
dren in whom they recognize symptoms of serious mental 
weakness. The use of intelligence tests as a basis for classi- 
fication would prevent many of the errors now made in 
classifying pupils. 

Although there are many degrees of backwardness, we 
may roughly classify backward pupils into three groups: 
(i) those who are mentally normal, or nearly so, but whose 
dullness is expressed by lagging in one or two school sub- 
jects; (2) those who are mentally like the group just men- 
tioned, but whose dullness is indicated by a rather consistent 
lagging in nearly all school subjects; and (3) those in whom 
actual subnormality of the mental processes is the obvious 
condition, rather than merely failure in school subjects. It 
is emphasized that all these groups are limited to pupils who 
are above the level of feeble-mindedness. 

BATAVIA TEACHING FOR BACKWARD PUPILS 

For the first two groups the plan of special instruction. 



148 The Boise Survey 

without segregating in permanent special classes, has met 
with success in many cities. Several methods for this group 
have been devised, all of them being based chiefly on what 
is known as the "Batavia plan." By this plan several 
teachers, especially skilled in the teaching of individual 
school subjects, and with special training and experience 
with backward children, gather the pupils from the different 
rooms for special drilling in one subject at a time. The 
first period, for example, may be devoted to arithmetic. At 
this time the teachers send to the Batavia room all the pupils 
who have recently fallen behind in arithmetic. The class 
will be made up of pupils from several different grades, but 
the time will be devoted exclusively to helping each pupil 
with the work which he has failed to get from the regular 
class. At the end of the period the pupils pass back to their 
rooms, and a period is given in the Batavia room to the 
teaching of another subject. Any individual pupil may be 
sent into this room once, twice, or for a week, two weeks, or 
as long a time as may be required. The supposition is that 
if the pupil has the necessary intelligence he will soon be 
caught up with his class and continue under his regular 
teacher. If he lacks the capacity to do the work, even 
with special help of this kind, he may be placed in a lower 
grade or transferred to a special class. Skillful and ener- 
getic Batavia teachers, with the supervision of a good prin- 
cipal, may exert much influence among the pupils of a 
school and materially reduce the amount of retardation. 
The plan merits a liberal trial in Boise. 



SPECIAL CLASSES FOR BACKWARD PUPILS 

Pupils of the third group, those whose essential condition 
is subnormality, should neither be demoted nor should they 
be permitted to clog the Batavia classes. Achievement in 
the school subjects does not increase mental capacity, and 
there is much in the usual school curriculum of the upper 
grades that is best not taught to children bordering on men- 



Individual Differences among the Children 149 

tal deficiency. Such pupils need a special curriculum 
adapted to their intellectual development. This does not 
mean intensive drilling on reading, writing, arithmetic, etc., 
as in the Batavia rooms, but work which may be of an en- 
tirely different sort from that of the regular grades. 

The essential aim of education for all children, normal 
and subnormal, should be training for the practical ad- 
justments of life. Whether or not the present curriculum 
succeeds in doing this for normal children, it cannot be ex- 
pected to function with children who do not have intelligence 
enough to grasp it, or to use it effectively after leaving 
school. The subnormal child should be trained specifically 
in meeting the problems of the world in which he is to 
live. While some occupations require a high degree of in- 
telligence, there are many in which persons of subnormal 
development can successfully compete, if properly trained 
and intelligently guided. In these occupations reliance is 
placed chiefly on manual skill. In shops, factories, and 
stores where efficient supervision is provided there are hun- 
dreds of persons of subnormal intelligence attaining success 
and living sober, industrious lives through the encourage- 
ment afforded by their vocational achievement. It is chil- 
dren for whom we can anticipate such careers that special 
classes should be formed in the Boise schools. 

The special classes should be under the direction of 
special teachers, professionally trained in the teaching of 
backward children. Some teachers now engaged in regu- 
lar classroom work may be developed for this special ser- 
vice. They should have more than the usual teacher train- 
ing, however. The special class should never be conceived 
as simply a place for extra fine teaching of the regular 
curriculum. In these classes the use of tools, different 
kinds of handwork, cooking, sewing, etc., should occupy 
the greater part of the time. The regular school subjects, if 
needed at all, should be reduced to the essential minimum. 
The classes should not exceed fifteen pupils at the most, 
because individual instruction, not group work, should 



150 The Boise Survey 

be the prevailing method/ There should be enough of these 
rooms in Boise to accommodate every backward child who 
cannot be reached by regular methods or Batavia teaching. 



FEEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN 

Eighteen pupils were classified by their teachers as feeble- 
minded, being ^'incapable of profiting normally from public 
school instruction," and being incapable of developing men- 
tally above the level reached by the average child of twelve 
years. This represents about eight tenths of one per cent 
of the children in the schools at the time of the survey. 
Most of these children are over-age, many being seriously 
retarded, and there are evidences that the teachers' judg- 
ments of their intellectual grade are essentially correct. In 
some instances the mental deficiency is so obvious that it 
would not require a psychological examination to establish 
the validity of the teacher's classification. 

There is also reason to believe that the teachers' esti- 
mates with respect to feeble-mindedness have been too con- 
servative. A study of the data supplied by the teachers on 
all classrooms reveals suspicions of mental deficiency where 
the teacher has given '^backward" as the classification. In 
these cases, of course, the teacher has played safe when her 
mind was in doubt, and in the absence of facilities for a 
psychological diagnosis her choice has not been unfair. The 
detecting of feeble-mindedness is a difficult matter, even for 
trained persons. Psychologists never attempt to diagnose 
intelligence without careful examinations, and it is not sur- 
prising that teachers were often in doubt in making the 
classifications for the survey." 

1 It is recommended that the special classes be organized and equipped 
according to description by Dr. H. H. Goddard in his School Training of 
Defective Children, published by World Book Company, Yonkers, 
New York. 

2 Teachers' opinions, however, are considered by psychologists as being 
one of the most reliable sources of supplementary information on the in- 
telligence of school children. 



Individual Differences among the Children 151 

Feeble-mindedness is a social problem which cannot be 
successfully met by the public schools as they are now con- 
stituted. Feeble-minded children do not belong in the 
public schools. In refusing to accept mentally defective 
children, the schools can assist in preventing this condition, 
by making it necessary for the state to take prophylactic 
measures. Every feeble-minded child is a burden to society, 
and it is the urgent duty of society, not to give him a smat- 
tering of school work and turn him loose to propagate his 
kind, but to place him in an institution where he can receive 
custodial care and continuous supervision at least during the 
reproductive period of life. 

Our prisons, reformatories, almshouses, and houses of 
prostitution are teeming with feeble-minded persons for 
whom the public schools have succeeded, if at all, only in 
camouflaging their true mental condition. It would be well 
for the public schools to take a definite stand regarding 
feeble-mindedness, and to call upon the state to make it im- 
possible for feeble-minded children to be born. 

There are, and always will be, feeble-minded children of 
high grade, possessing enough intelligence to do simple 
tasks, and even capable of making an independent living, 
under supervision. For these the special classes can do 
much by way of vocational training. There are probably 
several such cases among the pupils classified as backward. 
Procedure should be based, however, on the diagnosis of a 
clinical psychologist. 

EXAMPLES OF FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS 

During the survey a number of feeble-minded children 
were brought to the attention of the writer. In some cases 
examinations were made. Two of these seem of sufficient 
interest to report here. One is a feeble-minded child in the 
third grade, struggling along with the regular class, but 
with barely enough intelligence to do the work of the first 
grade well. The other is a child who has fortunately been 



152 The Boise Survey 

refused admittance to the schools, in which action the writer 
fully agrees with the school authorities. The real names of 
the children are not used. 

Marie S. Age lo years 2 months. Is in Grade 3 B. Physically 
normal, fine appearing, and would never be suspected of being other 
than normal mentally, except that she cannot do the work of the 
grade. Was given a clinical examination, requiring about 30 
minutes, from which it was learned that her mental age is 7 years 
and 2 months. Her intelligence quotient is .72, indicating high- 
grade feeble-mindedness. The tests indicate that she is incapable 
of doing the work of the third grade, and it appears that she has 
been passed without good reason. She should be placed in a special 
class, or transferred to a school where she can receive special train- 
ing suited to her intelligence. It is unlikely that she will ever de- 
velop mentally beyond the level of the average child of 12 years. 
This child has been adopted into an excellent home, but despite 
the care bestowed upon her has never shown normal intelligence. 
Her mother died of tuberculosis. 

Dora G. Age 8 years 9 months. Tried in school, but was returned 
home and refused admittance because of inability to learn and 
repulsiveness to other children. Can barely talk, using mumbling 
sounds. For book says boo; for key, gey; watch, wa; coat, doat; 
shoe, du; ten, gen, etc. Unable to make sentences except for me- 
chanical repeating of simple phrases often repeated to her. Has 
been defective from birth. First sat up when one year of age, first 
walked at two and one-half years, first repeated words at seven years. 
Cannot yet be said to talk intelligently. Can count to four by sounds 
intelligible only to those who know her. Unable to handle a pencil 
better than to make uncoordinated meaningless marks. 

This child is an idiot, or at best a low-grade imbecile. Her in- 
telligence is barely that of a child of two years, and it is unlikely 
that she will ever develop much more. Certainly she will never 
become normal, by any process of education or training. The 
parents, as is often the case, strongly resent the suggestion that 
Dora is in any way different from other children and make strenu- 
ous efforts to teach her to act and talk normally. So obsessed are 
they with the idea that she is normal, that they make repeated 
efforts to make the school authorities look at the case in the same 
way. The bringing of the child to the writer during the survey was 
an attempt to secure evidence from the survey staff to substanti- 
ate the claim of normality. The psychologist was strongly rebuked 
by the mother for not concurring in her opinion, although the test 
had been made as an accommodation to her. 



Individual Differences among the Children 153 



TABLE 35 
Teachers' Estimates of Conduct, by Grades 



Grade 


Lie 


Steal 


Truant 


Mischie- 
vous 


Immoral 


Fight 


Average 


Superior 


Total 


I 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 






9 

10 

19 
8 

9 
10 

7 
5 


3 
3 
9 

5 
2 

4 
6 

2 


I 
2 
7 
4 

2 

12 

8 


36 
24 
33 
35 
34 
42 
33 
25 


II 

2 
6 
6 
2 

19 

2 

3 


2 
II 
12 

7 
6 

3 



294 
190 

177 
323 
254 
183 
197 
138 


59 

58 
57 
40 
50 
60 
70 
72 


415 
300 
320 
428 
359 

329 
253 


Total . 


77 


34 


38 


262 


51 


43 


1756 


466 


2727 



DIFFERENCES IN CONDUCT 

On the same form on which the estimates of intelHgence 
were made, the teachers were asked to indicate the essential 
facts regarding the conduct of each child. Most of the 
pupils, as expected, were marked "average." About 17 per 
cent, or 466 individual pupils, were marked "superior." Some 
300 pupils were reported to be of inferior conduct, being 
addicted to lying, truancy, mischief, immorality or fighting. 
The distribution, by grades, is shown in Table 35. 

In this classiiication, as in the intelligence gradings, the 
teachers were asked to be conservative, and there is reason 
to believe that most of them were extremely careful, espe- 
cially in denoting cases of bad conduct. The terms used 
are subject to various interpretation, but allowing for serious 
errors, it appears that the accompanying table is a reliable 
picture of the facts of conduct among the Boise school chil- 
dren. The table merits detailed study, and some teachers 



154 T'he Boise Survey 

will do well to make a similar survey of their rooms and 
make more detailed observations. 



JUVENILE DELINQUENCY IN THE SCHOOLS 

It may seem incredible to many persons that the figures 
of the foregoing table could represent actual conditions in 
the Boise schools. It is not so surprising, however, when 
we realize that more than 90 per cent of juvenile delinquency 
has its origin in the public schools. This is true not only in 
Boise, but in all cities. Lying, stealing, truancy, mischief, 
immorality, and fighting are signs of potential, if not actual, 
delinquency. Case histories of hundreds of juvenile court 
cases show that the symptoms were present in just such 
forms when the children attended the public schools. The 
more serious the present condition, the nearer the child to 
the juvenile court. 

This does not mean, of course, that all the children re- 
ported by their teachers for unruliness are necessarily bound 
to become delinquent. All rules are subject to infraction, 
and any child at some time may be guilty of irregular con- 
duct. But children who habitually or frequently lie, steal, 
run away, or commit immoral acts, are repeating the his- 
tories of children who have become delinquent. It is there- 
fore the duty and the privilege of the school to take steps 
to see that actual delinquency does not occur. Principals 
and teachers should learn more of juvenile delinquency and 
its causes. Special observation and study should be made 
of children who depart seriously from ordinary conduct. 
The home conditions should be inquired into, the child 
should receive a psychological examination, and every effort 
should be made to correct wrong conditions which come 
under the authority of the schools. Where the school 
authority is not sufficient, cooperation should be given to 
those with whom the matter rests. 

We are rapidly approaching the time when juvenile de- 
linquency will be looked upon as primarily an educational 



Individual Differences among the Children 155 

problem. Already steps are being taken to extend the 
authority and scope of the public schools to include chil- 
dren whose irregular conduct now automatically takes them 
to the juvenile court. Our courts and industrial schools are 
crowded to capacity, and the belief is being generally 
accepted that many of these children could have been kept 
from the court had their individual cases been better under- 
stood by the public schools. Organized effort on the part 
of teachers and principals toward the study of this problem 
should go far in preventing delinquency. 



DEPENDENT CHILDREN 

Dependency is a condition of inadequate or incompetent 
parental care. Children so declared by legal process are 
usually placed in the custody of private or public agencies. 
The education of these children becomes very important, 
because of their greater susceptibility toward delinquency 
and other social irregularity. In some cases delinquency has 
actually begun before the law recognizes the condition of 
dependency. Feeble-mindedness is relatively frequent 
among dependent children, because of the inheritance of the 
mental weakness that prevents the stability of many homes. 
Where the children are placed in other homes, there is 
always danger of neglect, abuse, and other conditions which 
are related to the child's education. 

An interesting group of dependent children forms one of 
the classes of the Boise schools, located at the Children's 
Home. One full-time teacher is employed for this purpose, 
being a regular member of the teaching staff, and under the 
supervision of the city superintendent of schools. At the 
time of the survey an extra teacher had been employed for 
part time. 

The schoolroom contained 33 desks, crowded together in a 
small room, all occupied, and with three extra pupils sitting 
on the front seats without desks. The seats are all adjust- 
able but were not adjusted. The pupils were using slates, 



156 The Boise Survey 

most of which were broken and some of which were merely 
pieces of slate without frames. The slates were dirty and 
foul-smelling and were anything but an encouragement to 
neatness and order. The pupils had short, broken pencils, 
many of which were so short as to cramp the hands. All 
grades were represented, i to 8 inclusive, and the ages, sizes, 
and levels of intelligence were apparently as varied as one 
could well imagine. The room is lighted from the left and 
front with large, ample windows, all of which were tightly 
closed at the time of the writer's visit, a warm spring day. 
The room was decorated with the art work of the pupils, the 
quality of which was a credit to the teacher. 

The work of this room was conducted in a mechanical, 
hasty manner, being handicapped by all the limitations of 
an overcrowded one-teacher rural school. It appears that 
whatever the children learned was in spite of the school 
rather than because of it. Although an attempt is made to 
follow the city course of study, liberties have been taken 
entirely in keeping with the difficulties under which the 
teacher worked. A visitor could hardly fail to observe the 
contrast between this room and the better-equipped rooms 
of the regular schools. A recitation in spelling was in prog- 
ress at the time of the writer's visit. The following words 
selected from the dictionary by the teacher and grouped as 
shown, were used by all grades: 

hasty, rash, impulsive, 
tame, docile, teachable, 
holy, divine, sacred, 
shame, disgrace, dishonor, 
shine, gleam, glitter, 
fill, cram, gorge, 
dark, gloomy, dismal, 
inert, lifeless, sluggish. 

The pupils had diligently sought these words in the dic- 
tionary, and were required to spell and technically define 
each. The definitions, for the most part, were repeated me- 
chanically, with little comprehension of the meaning. In 



Individual Differences among the Children 157 

some cases it seemed fortunate that the child expended little 
effort to connect the meaning of the word with the practical 
necessities of life. 

The foregoing description is not intended as a criticism. 
There is probably no more conscientious, and certainly no 
more hard-working, teacher in the entire city than the 
teacher of this room. It is physically and mentally impos- 
sible consistently to adopt up-to-date methods in a room 
which might better have fitted an eighteenth-century school. 

The "overflow" room of this school, for which a part-time 
teacher is employed, was almost devoid of equipment, and 
was worse than makeshift. An advantage was afforded by 
its proximity to a large screened porch, which would make 
an excellent open-air room. As in the main room, the pupils 
come and go irregularly, as the home is a place of temporary 
detention in the case of some of the children. These con- 
ditions make teaching especially difficult, even where normal 
equipment is provided. 

The education of these unfortunate children should be 
considered an obligation, not an act of charity. All ad- 
vantages of the school system, with its best supervision, be- 
long as much to these as to the other pupils. If the oppor- 
tunities cannot be made equal by teaching at the institution, 
the children should be transferred to the regular schools. If 
such transportation is not feasible, the institution should be 
equipped, at the expense of the public schools, with school- 
rooms and equipment equal to the best in the city. Two 
classrooms, with two full-time teachers, should be pro- 
vided. The same standards of equipment and procedure 
which are held for all the schools should also apply to these. 
It would be well in keeping with the importance of the 
problem to assign the two best teachers in the city to these 
classes. Owing to the great variability of dependent chil- 
dren, psychological examinations should be made of all who 
come to the Home. Backward pupils found here should 
attend special classes, as in the other schools. 



158 The Boise Survey 

PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED CHILDREN 

Scattered through the schools were observed children who 
are prevented from receiving the full benefit of the regular 
classes by reason of physical handicaps. A special class, 
centrally located, could care for children who are crippled, 
who are partially or wholly deaf, who stutter or stammer, 
and who have seriously defective vision. The struggle made 
by such children for an education, attended by constant 
embarrassment and hardship, is little appreciated by those 
who are more fortunately equipped. 

RESEARCH WORK IN THE SCHOOLS 

The topics touched upon in this chapter are suggestive of 
the hundreds of problems which confront the modern public 
school. We have ceased to look upon the school as merely 
a convenient means for cramming facts of knowledge into 
children's brains, but have come to regard it as one of the 
most essential elements of civilization. There is no phase of 
public welfare which does not relate to the public schools. 
The service which the schools are called upon to perform 
is no simple task. The community should demand, not a 
traditional set of schools, but an energy-producing organiza- 
tion whose vitality reaches into every phase of our local, 
state, and national existence. The schools should become 
laboratories for the study of these problems, so that as each 
child passes through the schools the facts regarding his de- 
velopment, his differences, his weaknesses, his strength, may 
be set in order and interpreted for the benefit of those who 
will follow. We must do in education what has been done 
in other lines of human endeavor — in mechanics, in agri- 
culture, in chemistry, in medicine. We must learn new 
facts by making careful study of the facts now before us. 

To this end every effort should be made to collect and in- 
terpret the facts, need for which this report has made evi- 
dent and in the near future the city might well look forward 
to the establishment in the schools of a department of 



Individual Differences among the Children 159 

research. Such a department should be equipped to make 
a continuous survey of the school system. Facilities should 
be provided for obtaining the mental, physical, and socio- 
logical facts concerning each child. The information should 
be systematically kept and classified for analysis and inter- 
pretation. The superintendent could call on this depart- 
ment for exact data regarding any phase of the school sys- 
tem. He should be able, through the facts presented, to 
know exactly what progress is being made in sixth-grade 
arithmetic, which school is making the best record in spell- 
ing; how the age-grade distribution compares with other 
cities; how many pupils could advance more rapidly in 
"opportunity classes"; how many children come from 
homes in which there is need of attention; what is needed 
in the community for Americanization work ; how the school 
tax can be distributed more efficiently, and the answers to 
many other questions which have to do with the efficiency 
of the schools. Any principal could call for a special diag- 
nosis of each child and for recommendations regarding the 
child^s probable development. The possibilities for valuable 
work of this sort are limited only by the effort expended. 

A department of research, if properly conducted, would 
keep the Boise schools at a continual high level of effi- 
ciency, and would probably do more than any other depart- 
ment in placing the city educationally among the foremost 
of the country. The department should be under the direc- 
tion of a clinical psychologist, who should be assisted by 
trained workers in the different phases of the problem at- 
tacked. The size of the staff would depend upon the ex- 
tent of the desired information. Experience elsewhere has 
shown that better teaching, better supervision, better grad- 
ing, greater interest among the pupils, and a better commu- 
nity ''spirit" toward the schools usually result from the 
introduction of this work. 



i6o The Boise Survey 

. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

This chapter has presented some of the facts relative to 
exceptional children. The use of individual differences as 
a basis for classification and grading is rapidly becoming 
the practice of progressive school systems. Information 
supplied by the teachers revealed the presence in the Boise 
schools of several groups of exceptional children. While 
attempts are now being made to place these pupils in the 
best way possible, the present system does not permit of 
the classification which ought to be obtained. Special 
classes should be formed for children of marked superior 
intelligence and for subnormal children. The work of 
these classes should be adapted to the exceptional capacities 
and limitations revealed by psychological examinations. 
Special teaching on the Batavia plan should be provided 
for children who are backward in the school subjects. 
Feeble-minded children who are incapable of profiting from 
school instruction should be excluded from the schools and 
placed in institutions. Pupils whose conduct indicates that 
delinquency is imminent should be given special attention 
to prevent the necessity for action by the juvenile court. 
Teachers should become informed on the subject of juvenile 
delinquency and its causes. The work at the Children's 
Home should be placed on the same basis as the work of the 
other schools, and two full-time teachers should be assigned 
to that institution. Inquiry should be made as to the feasi- 
bility of establishing a special class for children who are 
physically handicapped. It is recommended that steps be 
taken to establish a department of research for the study of 
problems related to the efficiency of the schools. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE CHILDREN'S HEALTH 

(Williams) 

WHAT BOISE IS DOING 

HEALTH work in the Boise schools is supervised by 
one full-time nurse, with the cooperation of local phy- 
sicians. The survey staff is of the opinion that the resulting 
supervision is excellently done, in proportion to the invest- 
ment which the city annually makes for this work. At the 
time of the survey it happened that the school nurse was 
undergoing treatment in a local hospital following a tem- 
porary breakdown due chiefly to her activities in connection 
with the influenza epidemic. But for her unselfish devotion 
to the schools at that time, the epidemic in Boise might have 
assumed far greater proportions. The information for this 
section was obtained from a personal interview at the hos- 
pital, subsequent checking over of records, and the coopera- 
tion of the superintendent and teachers. 

The school nurse divides her time between examinations 
at the schools and visits to the children's homes. The lack 
of clerical assistance has impaired the keeping of more ex- 
tensive records, and it is evident that the statistical data 
found are too meager adequately to represent the work actu- 
ally accomplished. A busy nurse has little time for clerical 
work, and can be of more value to the school by pursuing 
the work for which she is trained. Several of the forms used 
are herewith reproduced. The forms have been lettered 
arbitrarily A, B, C, etc., for purposes of this discussion. 

The school physical examinations are conducted as fol- 
lows: The nurse enters the schoolroom (preferably in the 
morning) and asks the children to stand. At that time she 
notes any defects of posture. She then passes down each 

i6i 



1 62 The Boise Survey 



BOISE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 

Name ^^ Grade...-- 

Address -. School 

Date of BirtlL— .- Date Examined 

Weight . Height 

Nutri tion 

Enlarged Glands 

Nervous Disorder 

Cardiac Disorder _ 
Pulmonary Disorder 

Skin Disorder 

Contagion 

Defective . Vision 

Disease of Eye 



Defective Hearing _. 

Disease of Ear 

Nasal Breathing 

Defective Teeth 

Hyp. Tonsils 

Adenoids 

Vaccination 



Exclusion Readmission. 



FORM A 



aisle, making a hasty inspection of each pupil, noting clean- 
liness of face and hands, skin disorder, enlarged glands, 
nervousness, mouth breathing, discharging ears, suspicions 



The Children's Health 163 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS. BOISE, IDAHO 
DEPARTMENT SCHOOL HYGIENE 



Take this cvd at once, to your Physician; then bring it back to your Principal 

19 



Name . Address. 



School Room . 



The Physician who examines, the above named pupil is rc«pectfully requested to date, sign 
and return this card to the child. 

Please also record diagno;>is on'the reverse sffle of this card. This diagnosis is desired for 
the school, and the co-operation of physicians is camestjy requested in order that our records 
nnay be complete and accurate. 

(over) 



Upotf examination of the child named hereon on the day of 



., 19 , / make the follovAng diagnosis . 



(Please Kate wbetber gbiiea txk ordered, or if operatioo bat beeo decided upon.) 



and have this day of 19 begun treatment. 



M. D. 



Form B 



of eye trouble, signs of colds, etc. Each pupil showing 
physical irregularities of any kind is then sent to the prin- 
cipal's office, or into the corridor (there being no nurse's 
room). She then makes individual examinations of these 
pupils, with special attention to the condition noted or sus- 



1 64 The Boise Survey 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS. BOISE. IDAHO 

DEPARTMENT OF HYGIENE 



To the Parent or Guardian of. 

Public School No._ 

Health examination of your child by the nurse of the Depart- 
ment of Hygiene shows that .„„...he needs medical attention. 

Please call at _._ _....„ _ school on..._ _ 

at ..o'clock to confer with the Health Supervisor. 



Date 



Principal. 



Form C 

pected. As time permits, however, an individual examina- 
tion is made of each pupil, following the outlines in Form A. 
Pupils who show special defects or signs of contagion or 
infection are sent home with a note to the parent, requesting 
an examination and a signed statement (Form B) from a 
physician. In cases requiring consultation with the parent, 
the principal notifies the parent on Form C. The nurse 
makes daily reports to the superintendent, a representative 
sample of which is shown on Form D. Tabulation of daily 
examinations is made on the cumulative record card (Form 
E), which shows the history of each child's health from year 
to year as he progresses through the schools. 

A summary of the past year's work is shown in Table 36, 
made up from the daily reports transmitted to the superin- 
tendent's office. The nurse made 222 visits to the schools, 
made 2439 examinations, excluded 87 cases, and recom- 
mended treatment for 298 pupils. It is significant that 290 
of these cases actually received treatment. The value of 
the work can be appreciated when we realize that the vast 
majority of the illness and defects treated would probably 
have escaped the attention of teachers and parents had it 



The Children's Health 165 



DAILY REPORT 

CLASS ROOM EXAMINATIONS 
BOISE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

No. 

No; of Visits to Schools X 

No. of Pupils Examined / C 

No. of Pupils Excluded 

No. of Classroom inspections L ^ 

Recommendations for Treatment ^?>t^- Y/i'^^^'^ 

DEFECTS FOUND ^^T^l^LZ.:?- ^ 

Decayed Teeth 9 
Tonsils— Hypertrophy of ^ 
Eye — Defective Vision 

Other Defects 
Glands — Enlargement of 
Adenoids 

Nasal Breathing Impaired 
Anemia 
Nutrition 
Skin Disease 
Ear— Hearing Impaired / 

Discharging 
Goitre / 
Heart Disease 
Other Defects 
Contagious Disease 

EXCLUSIONS A /) ^ J A^ 



HOMES VISITED... x>Id. £l--.new 

DATE .<y?^^A4^.„/C^J.. 



GERTRUDE CRAGIN. 

School Nurse. 



Form D 



i66 



The Boise Survey 







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TABLE 36. Summary of Daily Reports of School Nurse on Class- 
room Examinations for the School Year 1918-19 



No. of visits to schools 

No. of pupils examined 

No. of pupils excluded 

No. of classroom inspections 

Recommendations for treatment . . . 

Medical and surgical 

Dental 

Home 

Treatment given 

Defects Found: 

Decayed teeth 

Tonsils — hypertrophy of 

Eye — defective vision 

other defects 

Glands — enlargement of 

Adenoids (five more suspected) . . . 

Nasal breathing impaired 

Anemia 

Nutrition ... 

Skin disease 

Ear — hearing impaired 

discharging 

Goiter 

Heart disease 

Other defects 

Contagious disease 

Exclusions : 

Desquamation 

Chicken pox 

Eruption 

Headache 

Anemic 

Itch 

Barber's itch 

Nausea 

Pediculosis 

Pink eye 

Poison ivy 

Scarlet fever 

Smallpox 

Severe cold 

Spanish influenza 

Temperature 

Tonsillitis 

Vomiting 

Whooping cough 

Toothbrush Drill — buildings 

Homes Visited — old 

new 

167 



Sept. 16 
to Oct. 17 



61 

481 

21 

173 
298 



25 

91 
87 
IS 
51 
4 

2 

I 
4 

30 

I 
I 

3 

2 

10 

2 
4 
3 



Dec. 2 
to May 13 



8 
50 



161 

1958 
66 

84s 

399 
265 

364 

162 

60 

24 

12 

45 
16 

5 

9 

53 

26 

12 

7 

20 
7 



9 

31 

245 



Total 



222 

2439 

87 

1018 

298 

370 

363 

399 

290 

455 
249 

75 
75 
16 

45 

18 

6 

13 

83 

27 

13 

7 

3 

22 

17 

2 
6 
8 

7 

I 

15 

I 
2 
I 
8 
I 
12 

3 
2 

3 

12 
I 
I 
I 
9 
39 
295 



1 68 The Boise Survey 

-RUPILS EXAMINED 243Q- 




RECOMMENDED FOR TREATMENT 29 Q 

-eXCL UJ/O/yj 67 

Fig. 27. Results of Examinations by School Nurse, 191 8- 19 

not been for the nurse's examinations. Preventive work in 
these cases alone would justify many times over the amount 
expended for health supervision. 

The numerous defects found and the reasons listed for 
exclusion from school are suggestive of the duty which the 
city owes to its children. Figure 27 shows graphically the 
extent to which the schools contain children who, without 
special treatment, may contaminate or impair the efficiency 
of the entire school system. Health supervision, with the 
intelligent cooperation of teachers and parents, prevents 
untold suffering and actually preserves the lives and effi- 
ciency of future citizens. 

ADDITIONAL NURSES NEEDED 

Health supervision in Boise is too great and too important 
a task to shoulder on a single school nurse. She must nec- 
essarily work hurriedly and limit herself to the most urgent 
cases. One nurse for each 1000 pupils would be much better, 
and the results would probably more than justify the addi- 
tional cost. Three school nurses, each with three elementary 
schools and a share of high school work, would be a wise 
provision. The minimum improvement should be one ad- 
ditional nurse, who, in addition to assistance in health in- 
spection work should be used in home visiting and for 
assisting in the management of attendance, as suggested in 
Chapter II. Extra provision for clerical assistance is also 
needed. The keeping of records is second only to the actual 
supervision of the children's health. The inspection of these 
records will often save time and money. They also serve as 
a permanent cumulative record of the health conditions of 



The Children's Health 169 

the city. The present school nurse is capable of directing 
the work of one or more assistants and supervising the 
clerical work. The energy and enthusiasm which she has 
already put into the work should be an inspiration to her 
associates and to the teachers, upon whose cooperation so 
much depends. 



A BRIEF HEALTH SURVEY BY THE TEACHERS 

Although the reports of the school nurse reveal conditions 
based upon professional inspection, and must therefore be 
considered the official source of information, it was desired 
to have each teacher make a brief survey of her room, and 
to report the observation which she and her pupils made. 
The following questionnaire was used, a copy being sent to 
each teacher in the elementary schools: 

Boise School Survey 
May, 1919 

Form B (One for each teacher) 
Teacher's Survey of Health and Physical Conditions 

School- Teacher Grade Pupils 

Part I. Fill out without asking children. Be acairate. 

1. Number of pupils who have frequent or chronic difficulty in breathing 

through the nose. 

2. No. who have frequent or chronic nasal discharge. 

3. No. showing signs of imperfect hearing. 

4. No. who stutter or stammer. 

5. No. showing defects of eyes or vision. 

6. No. whose vision has been tested this year. 

7. No. who wear glasses regularly. 

8. No. who show nerv^ous irritability, timidity, tendency to worry, cryine 

without cause, etc. 

9. No. who show signs of moral weakness. 

10. No. who show marked lack of mental alertness. 

11. No, who show unusual mental alertness. 

12. No. lacking in play ability. 

13. No. deUcate or frequently ill. 

14. No. whose posture (sitting or standing) is faulty. 



170 The Boise Survey 

Part II. Ask the children the following questions and record the results. 
Be serious, and secure as accurate results as possible. 

1. How many have headache often? (2 or 3 tunes a month.) 

2. How many have earache often? (2 or 3 times a month.) 

3. How many have sore throats or colds often? 

4. How many have had tonsils or adenoids removed? 

5. How many have had tonsils or adenoids removed during the past year? 

6. How many cannot easily read the writing on the blackboard? 

7. For how many does the print in the book seem to blur, run together, or 

look black? 

8. How many have ever gone to a dentist? 

9. How many have done so during the past year? 

10. How many have a toothbrush? 

11. How many have toothache often? 

12. How many usually come to school without breakfast? 

13. How many do not usually eat lunch? 

The reports, summarized in Table 37, furnish an interest- 
ing and valuable supplement to the findings of the school 
nurse. The number of defects reported by the teachers is 
much greater, but teachers cannot be expected to detect 
conditions with the accuracy of a trained nurse. That the 
teachers use varying standards is evident from the uneven- 
ness of the replies on certain items. At the Hawthorne 
School, for example, only one of 112 pupils was reported as 
having faulty posture, while at the Longfellow School more 
than one fourth of the enrollment were so reported. There 
is reason to believe, however, that the teachers took the task 
seriously and their observations are to be considered highly 
significant. The teacher's daily contact with her pupils 
gives her an opportunity for observation which the school 
nurse cannot have. For this reason the nurse must con- 
tinually rely upon the teacher's help. 

Some of the problems of health which are important to 
all schools will be briefly reviewed here, with special refer- 
ence to the findings among the school children of Boise. 

POSTURE 

The teachers report 405 pupils as having faulty posture. 
Although none are reported by the school nurse, she has 



The Children's Health 



171 



TABLE 37 

Summary of Data Gathered from Questionnaire on Health Con- 
ditions, Reported on by Each Teacher in the Elementary 
Schools 

Part I. Answered by teachers 



No. of Pupils 



371 



259 



166 



427 



263 



438 



267 



175 



1. Difficulty in breathing through 

nose 

2. Nasal discharge 

3. Imperfect hearing 

4. Stutter or stammer 

5. Have eye defects 

6. Vision tested this year .... 

7. Wear glasses regularly .... 

8. Nervousness, etc 

9. Moral weakness 

10. Lack mental alertness .... 

11. Unusual alertness 

12. Lack play ability 

13. Delicate or ill 

14. Have faulty posture 



10 

12 

9 

4 

10 

143 
7 
9 
II 
28 
II 
10 

31 
16 



61 

44^ 
21 
16 
44 
53 
24 
35 
25 
46 

32 
12 

39 
III 



54 
31 
17 
14 
54 
123 

14 
37 
26 

2>^ 
22 
12 
40 
54 



31 
14 
13 

2>2> 

175 

II 

23 
12 

30 
16 

7 
23 
30 



20 
7 
7 
2 

31 

175 

9 

18 

7 
20 
21 

2 

25 
26 



Part 2. Answered by pupils 



1. Headaches of ten 

2. Earaches often 

3. Sore throats, colds often . . . . 

4. Tonsils, adenoids out 

5. Tonsils or adenoids out this year 

6. Difficulty reading blackboard . . 

7. Print blurs, etc 

8. Ever gone to dentist 

9. To dentist this year 

10. Have toothbrush 

11. Have toothache often 

12. Have no breakfast 

13. Have no lunch 



65 


71 


17 


41 


114 


70 


107 


55 


72 


34 


II 


21 


18 


36 


18 


39 


22 


25 


58 


67 


32 


40 


96 


52 


106 


78 


54 


87 


38 


35 


44 


97 


95 


82 


60 


65 


27 


9 


14 


14 


27 


22 


15 


14 


II 


12 


22 


II 


14 


39 


20 


39 


28 


81 


51 


58 


29 


28 


97 


52 


91 


50 


79 


267 


152 


69 


114 


229 


187 


290 


155 


134 


132 


53 


37 


68 


181 


97 


170 


116 


lOI 


321 


138 


105 


166 


381 


252 


380 


267 


166 


49 


42 


26 


19 


89 


47 


83 


47 


48 


17 


6 


2 


4 


39 


15 


25 


9 


8 


2 


3 


5 


I 


' 


12 


5 




3 



612 

224 

583 

603 

153 

266 

535 
1598 

955 
2176 

450 

125 

38 



172 The Boise Survey 

doubtless observed many cases. It is not unreasonable to 
suppose that disorders of growth, with their evil effects on 
school life, are as common in Boise as in most other Ameri- 
can cities. Terman and Hoag estimate that from 20 to 30 
per cent of the school children in the United States are 
affected by spinal curvature, which is the common patho- 
logical cause for incorrect sitting and standing. 

Spinal curvature is a functional disorder, and does not 
have its origin in the school. The school should be held 
responsible, however, for providing desks and seats which 
are adjusted to the physical requirements of children thus 
affected. There are probably not enough adjustable desks 
in Boise schools to supply the deformed pupils, if their use 
were to be so limited. 

The school also may be held responsible for the posture 
of children whose spines are not curved, but who have 
formed incorrect habits of sitting, standing, and walking. 
Often these habits result from desks which are not properly 
set, or which are not fitted to the pupils using them. Even 
a stationary desk can be set the "minus" distance, and with 
desks of different sizes each pupil may be reasonably fitted. 
Instruction in the proper carrying of books and in correct 
standing, sitting, and walking will go far toward improving 
posture in the school. Exercises may be given which will 
not only benefit all the pupils, but will also improve those 
afflicted with functional curvature. 



NUTRITION 

Nearly 10 per cent of the pupils are reported delicate or 
frequently ill. The teachers' observations in this respect 
cannot be often mistaken. While there are numerous causes 
for this condition, it may easily result from insufficient or 
improper feeding among children whose physical condition 
is otherwise normal. The seriousness of the situation in 
Boise is made more apparent by the testimony of 125 chil- 
dren who regularly come to school without breakfast, and 



The Children's Health 173 

38 who regularly eat no lunch. The proportion of these 
cases is greatest at the Longfellow, Lowell, and Park schools. 
It does not follow that all the children who do have break- 
fast and lunch are properly fed. Some of the lunches 
brought to school would be better not eaten. Close super- 
vision over such matters, with home visiting and advice by 
the school nurse, will help bring about better feeding. The 
cooking classes can be utilized to good advantage in the 
dissemination of food knowledge. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

This disease is so common among school children that a 
knowledge of its causes and effects should be made a part 
of the professional equipment of every teacher. So common 
is this plague, that if the total number of cases in the United 
States were to be spread evenly according to the population, 
Boise's share would be nearly 500. About 100 of these 
would be school children. It is probable that Boise does not 
have her full share, thanks to her location and climate. On 
the other hand, many tuberculous persons seek such 
climates for their recovery. It is conceivable that there are 
dozens of cases in this city, and that many children are in 
daily contact with the disease. Thorough inspection, medi- 
cal supervision, clean buildings, and fresh air are among the 
contributions the school can make. Prevention should be 
made the key word of all health work. 

CONTAGION IN THE SCHOOLS 

The influenza epidemic illustrated in Boise, as in other 
cities, how rapidly disease can spread, even when drastic 
preventive measures are taken. The mingling of hundreds 
of children from hundreds of homes gives the schools an 
opportunity to become either the city's greatest source of 
illness or its greatest source of health conservation. Particu- 
larly in the matter of contagious diseases, the schools are 



174 



The Boise Survey 



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The Children's Health 175 

closely related to the social and economic welfare of the 
community. 

Rigid care, supported by legal requirements, has been 
exercised in the Boise schools relative to contagion. Forms 
F and G indicate the cooperation of the school, the home, 
and the state in the prevention of spreading diseases. 

VENTILATION AND HEALTH 

Suggestions for the improvement of the ventilation sys- 
tems in the schools are made in the chapter on buildings and 
grounds. The effects of bad ventilation should logically 
come to the attention of the school nurse. Her evidence 
will support the recommendation that an abundant and con- 
stant supply of clean, fresh air be circulated through each 
schoolroom. 

TEETH 

About 15 per cent of the pupils examined by the school 
nurse were recommended for dental treatment. This in- 
cludes, of course, only children whose parents had not previ- 
ously provided adequate treatment. That there are many 
parents in Boise who do not attend to their children's teeth 
is indicated by the statements of 858 children that they 
have never been to a dentist. This represents more than 30 
per cent of the elementary school enrollment. The number 
who say they have no toothbrush is 280, or about 10 per 
cent of the enrollment. Even if one half of these children 
are mistaken, the numbers represent significant proportions. 
In the light of other facts it seems probable that consider- 
ably more than one half of them have told the truth. One 
wonders how many of the 450 who report frequent tooth- 
aches are among those without toothbrushes and who have 
never had a mouth inspection. We are also compelled to 
wonder how the toothbrush drill must seem to the 280 who 
have nothing with which to practice at home. 

Regular instruction by the school nurse in the use and 
importance of the toothbrush has brought effective results 



176 



The Boise Survey 







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The Children's Health 177 

during the past year. The use of Form H, for instructing 
parents, is commendable. A school whose pupils clean their 
teeth each morning has made a worthy accomplishment. 



NOSE AND THROAT 

More than 11 per cent of the pupils, or more than the 
total enrollment of the Washington School, are reported by 
their teachers as having difficulty in breathing through the 
nose. More than one half of this number have nasal dis- 
charge. Sore throats and colds are common, according to 
the testimony of the children. These facts are not surprising 
in the climate of Boise. The air is dry and necessarily con- 
tains particles of dust. Unless this air is mixed with mois- 
ture before being breathed, the sharp dust particles irritate 
the delicate membranes of the nose and throat, which, when 
allowed to become dry, are powerless to resist. The broken 
and roughened membranes become easily infected, and 
serious ailments often result. Many of these cases must 
escape the attention of the school nurse, owing to the ne- 
cessity for hasty inspection. Nasal discharge and impaired 
breathing are easily noticed by the teachers, owing to their 
effect upon the recitation and study periods. Such cases 
should always be reported to the school nurse. We cannot 
afford to pass over them lightly. 

Still more serious are the indications of adenoids and 
diseased tonsils. The school nurse reported 249 cases of 
hypertrophied tonsils and 45 cases of adenoids, out of 2439 
examinations during the past year. The children reported 
153 operations, most of which were probably made on the 
recommendation of the school nurse. It is to the credit of 
the school health department that these suggestions were 
carried out. Assuming that the operations represent the 
most serious cases, the remaining 250 must include many 
cases needing immediate attention. No doubt some of these 
were taken care of during the summer vacation. It is not 
unlikely, however, that children were returned to the school 



178 The Boise Survey 



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The Children's Health 1 79 

in September whose health was greatly impaired through 
neglect of these reported conditions. Diseased tonsils are 
now known to be the source of much disability and mor- 
tality formerly attributed to other causes. Teachers and 
principals should cooperate with the health authorities to 
stamp out nose and throat diseases in the schools. 

HEARING 

In the case of ear defects there is a wide discrepancy be- 
tween the teachers' observations and those of the school 
nurse. The teachers report 107 cases of imperfect hearing, 
while during the past year but 2 7 cases came to the attention 
of the nurse. Here again it is probable that only the more 
marked cases were reported at the classroom examination. 
It is probable that the teachers' estimates are nearer the 
truth. Hearing is an essential factor in instruction. 
Teachers are in an excellent position to detect temporary or 
permanent auditory defects. All teachers know how the 
weakness of this important sense may produce school re- 
tardation. It has been found that some children are need- 
lessly repeating their school work by reason of ear defects 
that could easily be remedied. The statements of 224 Boise 
children to the effect that earaches are common with them 
should be a matter of grave concern to the schools. Hearing 
tests in which the teachers can cooperate with the school 
nurse are now available and should be used at least once a 
month in each schoolroom. More attention should be given 
to the seating of the children who do not hear well. 

EYE TROUBLES 

Tests of vision have been made through the schools, but 
as in the case of other health observations, they have been 
limited chiefly to the pupils whose defects were marked, 
or who, for some reason, were especially called to the atten- 
tion of the school nurse. The number of defects reported 
is relatively small, and is probably a conservative estimate. 



i8o The Boise Survey 

The nurse reports 150 cases out of last year's examinations, 
75 of which were cases of defective vision. The teachers 
report 249 cases, which indicates that about 10 per cent of 
the pupils enrolled have vision so poor that it has come to 
the attention of the teacher. From the children themselves 
come the reports that 535 find that the print in the textbook 
blurs, 266 cannot clearly read ordinary writing on the black- 
board, and 612 have frequent headaches. While all of these 
probably cannot be due entirely to eye defects, most of 
them can be traced to that source. These facts are shown 
graphically in Figure 28. Probably the proportion of pupils 
needing the attention of an oculist is far greater than has 
been suspected. It is not unlikely that some of the diffi- 
culty can be traced to the improper lighting of schoolrooms, 
to which reference has been made in another chapter. 

The testing of vision is such a simple matter that it should 
be more widely carried on in the schools. The McCallie 
Vision Cards, which have been successfully used in many 
cities, constitute a convenient and reliable means of meas- 
uring relative visual capacity. These tests can be given 
by any teacher to all the pupils in her room in less than 
fifteen minutes.^ Five dollars would buy enough tests to 
supply all the schools for many years. Such work done at 
regular intervals would be of great help to the teachers and 
would furnish invaluable cooperation with the school nurse. 
Children's eyes are one of the most precious assets in the 
acquirement of an education. The efficiency of the schools 
demands a careful attention to matters of visual hygiene. 

NERVOUS CONDITIONS 

All of the 167 pupils reported as being nervous require 
further observation. Many of these are of a high-strung, 
excitable temperament, which may interfere with school 
work and health, if not guarded. Children who are naturally 

1 A demonstration of these tests was given at the Hawthorne School 
during the survey. 



The Children's Health i8i 



2456PUP/L3 REPORTED UPON- 




d02H^EHi^D EYES TESTEDTH/S YE^P 



612 H^VE HE/QD^CHES OFTEN 



53S FIND TH/QT THE PRINT BL URS 



266 Hl^EDIFF/CUlTYPE/7Dm BLi7CKa04IPD 



249 RE PORTED BY TE^CHER3 FOR EYE DEFECTS 



150 REPORTED BY 3CH00L NURSE FOR EYE DEFECTS 



■/OS NOW WEARING GI/7SSES 



/J % PROBl^BLY H^VE DEFECTIVE V/SION 



Fig. 28. Data Relating to Vision in the Schools of Boise 

weak in the control of their nervous mechanisms are subject 
to many undesirable conditions. The neglect of such cases 
is turning to the juvenile courts hundreds of children whose 
delinquency might have been prevented through their proper 
care during the early years of school life. A special study 
of all nervous children would be an undertaking which the 
principals and teachers could well afford to make. 

SPEECH PROBLEMS 

The number of pupils reported as being subject to stut- 
tering or stammering is relatively small in proportion to some 
of the other defects, but there are enough cases to justify 
the establishment of at least two or three special classrooms 
for speech development, which is the practice in some cities. 
The fact that nine out of every ten cases of stammering can 
be cured by relatively simple treatment argues strongly for 
this work to become a part of the educational program. The 



i82 The Boise Survey 

employment of a single special teacher in Boise for this 
purpose would probably cost less than the extra cost of the 
retardation of these pupils. With a little instruction some 
of the regular teachers could assist in bringing about normal 
speech habits in stammering children. Dr. Lewis M. Ter- 
man in his Hygiene of the School Child suggests the follow- 
ing of these simple directions: 

Arrange with the child to remain a half-hour after school three 
or four times a week for a speech lesson. Let this consist largely of 
conversation in a low, ordinary tone of voice. Convince the child 
that he will be able to overcome the defect. Repeat this assurance 
until it becomes an absolute conviction. Stuttering will ordinarily 
not cease as long as the fear of it remains. ... He must be taught 
to take a reasonable attitude toward his defect and toward people. 

MENTAL CONDITIONS AND HEALTH 

About 10 per cent of the children are noticeably lacking in 
mental alertness, according to the observations of their 
teachers. Sluggishness of mental operation is not infre- 
quently a definite symptom of physical defect. General 
physical weakness, malnutrition, adenoids, tonsils, impaired 
hearing, speech impediments, and other defects referred to 
often prevent the proper exercise of the mind. Indeed, so 
close is the relation existing between school success and 
health that the belief has sometimes been expressed that 
the development of intelligence is retarded by physical de- 
fects. Intelligence tests have shown that this is not true 
to the extent supposed, but many physically defective chil- 
dren have been found to be incapable of doing the work 
which could normally be expected from their mental ages. 
School efficiency requires sound minds in sound bodies. It 
should be the business of the school to see that both of these 
important elements are given their full measure of attention. 

PLAY AND HEALTH 

Judging from the teachers' observations, the ability to 
play normally is common to nearly all the children in the 



The Children's Health 183 

Boise schools. The ability to play is a natural gift, and 
fortunately does not depend entirely upon the amount and 
kind of equipment provided. There is no foundation, how- 
ever, either in theory or practice, for the notion that play- 
ground apparatus is unnecessary to the best use of the 
play instinct. It might be said truthfully that children can 
learn to read without textbooks and that they could learn 
to write by marking on the ground with sticks. At the same 
time we encourage the use of good books and writing ma- 
terials because we know that more efficient results can be 
obtained from their use. The fact that the teachers report 
61 pupils to be lacking in play ability may not be due 
altogether to the lack of apparatus, but it is reasonable to 
suppose that many of them can be developed by putting 
playground work on the same basis as classroom instruction. 

SOURCES OF INFECTION 

Numerous references are made in the chapter on buildings 
and grounds to points in building construction and sanita- 
tion which are directly related to the health of the children. 
In fact, there is hardly a part of the school plant which is 
not so related. Some parts are especially liable to affect 
the physical condition of the pupils through infection or 
contamination. Among these, perhaps, the toilets are of 
greatest importance. These rooms should be kept clean, 
dry, and well lighted at all times. Ample washing facilities, 
including clean basins, warm water, liquid soap, and paper 
towels should constitute the standard equipment. Habits 
of cleanliness and sanitation can be best learned in the 
presence of wholesome surroundings and equipment which 
invite its regular use. 

Banisters and other parts of the buildings which the chil- 
dren touch with their hands should be kept clean with a 
disinfectant. All forms of equipment intended for general 
use should be systematically and frequently cleaned. In 
some of the dark but regularly used parts of the Boise school 



1 84 The Boise Survey 

buildings it is an easy matter for janitors to neglect these 
details. Among the 89 exclusions from school during the 
past year on the recommendation of the school nurse may 
be found cases which show the necessity for taking advan- 
tage of every possible means of preventing the spread of 
infection. 

HYGIENE TEACHING 

The course of study provides for instruction in hygiene in 
the first six grades of the elementary schools. The outline 
for the current year is as follows: 

HYGIENE 

Grades 1, 2, 3, 4 

I. Form habits of personal cleanliness: 

1. Bathe frequently. 

2. Brush teeth (up and down as well as across) after each meal. 

3. Keep clean face, neck, ears, hands, and finger nails. 

4. Wash scalp and hair at least once each month. Keep hair neatly combed. 

5. Brush clothes and shoes. 
II. Form habits of regular living. 

1. Go to bed early. Keep windows wide open in sleeping rooms so that 

the air may pass through freely. 

2. Eat at regular hours. 

3. Play in the open air. 

Fifth Grade 
Care of the body and its organs: 

1. The necessity for pure air and how to secure it; adequate ventilation. 

2. Microbes and cleanliness. 

3. Value of sleep and the amount necessary. 

4. Care of the eyes, ears, teeth, nails, hair, skin and clothing. 

5. Work of the nose and lungs. 

6. Appropriate physical exercises; play in the open air. 

Sixth Grade 
Municipal health: 

1. Clean streets and children's part in this. 

2. Proper disposal of garbage, ashes, and rubbish. 

3. Need of playgrounds. 

4. Prevention of fires. 

5. Importance of good water supply and food inspection. 



The Children's Health 185 

6. Epidemics and safeguards against them. 

7. Effects of alcohol on vigor. 

8. Cost of liquor to the municipality. 

Health Habits — O'Shea and Kellogg. 
Aim: To fix right habits of living. 

6B, Pages 1-105. 6A. Pages 106-206. 

This outline, although too brief to serve as a manual of 
directions, suggests to the teacher the essential feature of 
hygiene teaching during the first years of school life; namely, 
that it should be informal, with a view toward inculcating 
correct habits of living, rather than filling the children's 
minds with the technicalities of physiology and disease. If 
the lessons in this outline are learned and followed regularly 
by the school children of Boise, there will be health and 
vigor in the growing generation. Especially commendable 
is the encouragement of frequent bathing, fresh air, habits 
of regular living, exercise, and general preventive work. An 
excellent opportunity is offered here for follow-up work on 
the part of the teachers and the school nurse. Regular 
surveys could be made, by classrooms, to see how many 
pupils were profiting from the instruction. Hoag and Terman 
in Health Work in the Schools show how health surveys can 
be conducted quickly and easily by any teacher. Children 
find pleasure in undertaking such surveys. Their regular 
use may be made a valuable source of unconscious self- 
instruction. 

It is unfortunate that the hygiene course is limited to the 
first six grades. Commendable as this informal work is, its 
effectiveness would be multiplied many fold by following it 
with more definite instruction in the seventh and eighth 
grades. Here the practical aspects of bacteriology, home 
hygiene, municipal and industrial hygiene, etc., could be 
emphasized by concrete observations and illustrative ma- 
terial. Good teachers can make hygiene a popular and 
highly profitable course in the upper grades. The emphasis 



1 86 The Boise Survey 

throughout the schools should be on prevention and whole- 
some living, with as little as possible of the morbid aspects 
of the problem. 



It is generally recognized that healthful schools require 
healthy teachers. The importance of this may be expressed 
before long in the requirement that all candidates for teach- 
ing positions pass a physical examination as a prerequisite 
to their employment. The army enlistment standards of 
health could as logically be adopted for those who enlist in 
the teaching ranks of the public schools. The board of 
education, as well as any business concern, is justified in 
demanding that its employees be in sound physical and 
mental health at the beginning and throughout the period 
of employment. Efficiency in teaching is no less dependent 
upon health than success in the industrial or commercial 
world. The teacher's health is more important than that 
of a factory hand, for not only is her personal welfare at 
stake, but the welfare and even the lives of her pupils may 
depend upon her strength, vigor, and habits of living. The 
community should cooperate in this health program by pro- 
viding teachers and pupils with clean, wholesome surround- 
ings. 

THE JANITOR AND HEALTH 

School janitors in Boise, as in many other cities, are em- 
ployed without much regard to either health or training. 
Yet the responsibilities vested in him make him, next to the 
principal, the most important official in the school. We may 
confidently expect that within a few years janitors in all 
of the more progressive school systems will be selected with 
as great care as is now exercised in the selection of teachers. 
The janitor will be required to know, in addition to the 
necessary mechanical knowledge, the fundamental principles 
of school hygiene. It will be necessary for him to know 



The Children's Health 187 

how to produce correct heating, lighting, and ventilation; 
how to adjust seats and desks scientifically; how properly 
to disinfect rooms; how to prevent the accumulation and 
spread of dust; what diseases are transmissible, and how 
they can be prevented; in short, how to keep the school as 
hygienic as a hospital or a kitchen. Moreover, he should 
know of such matters in their relation to the health and 
development of the children, for in his hands rests the secret 
of the physical success of the school. This will require a 
scientific and educational training which, needless to say, 
few school janitors ever receive. Obviously it will not be 
possible to provide the schools at once with trained janitors. 
There is little inducement at present for capable men to 
choose this vocation early enough in life to become trained. 
There are few places, in fact, where such training is offered. 
The most practicable step for the schools to take lies in the 
direction of insisting on high standards of intelligence and 
education, and pay enough to secure men who meet these 
standards. Such men will usually be found willing to devote 
a portion of their time to study, and every hour so spent 
will yield valuable returns to the schools. The Board of 
Education could well afford to furnish each janitor with a 
good book on school hygiene and with magazines devoted 
to the problems with which he has to deal. Dr. Fletcher B. 
Dresslar in his School Hygiene gives a list of twenty rules 
for janitors, which, if learned and applied, in themselves 
furnish a valuable elementary textbook. 



OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS 

All the classes in the Boise schools are conducted within 
closed walls. Inasmuch as most of these rooms are incor- 
rectly ventilated, there is nothing in the city which 
approaches the open-air class. Yet there are enough tu- 
berculous and pre-tuberculous children alone to fill at least 
one such class. Probably three or four classes would be 
none too many to handle properly all the children who could 



1 88 The Boise Survey 

profit greatly from them. To give these children a chance 
at recovery is the least that should be done for them. Many 
cities in the United States during the past ten years have 
adopted the plan of having open-air classes, and in every 
instance the benefits derived were sufficiently evidenced to 
warrant their continuance. In some instances the improve- 
ment in the children is almost incredible, but actual meas- 
urements and tests have substantiated the claims made. No 
city which has established open-air schools has abandoned 
them. It would be well for Boise to follow their example, 
and at least test the method. 

Open-air schools are not expensive. In fact, they can 
often be very cheaply constructed, or made out of buildings 
which no longer serve the needs of regular schools. It has 
been suggested that the Hawthorne School be converted to 
such use. It is recommended that consideration be given 
to this suggestion before the school is abandoned. Some 
cities have adopted a policy of providing at least one open- 
air classroom in each new building. In California it is not 
uncommon to construct schools so that all rooms may be 
converted into open-air rooms in a few minutes. A study 
of the buildings in Boise, especially in connection with sug- 
gested improvements in lighting, will doubtless reveal plenty 
of opportunities for making open-air classrooms with very 
little expenditure. 



SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. Medical supervision in Boise is carried on by one 
school nurse, employed for full time. The work accom- 
plished thus far is commendable, but should be extended 
and supplemented. It is recommended that at least one 
additional school nurse and clerical assistance be provided. 

2. A survey of certain health conditions revealed health 
facts of far-reaching significance. Many children have de- 
fects which could easily be remedied by extended health 
supervision. The extra cost to the schools of the retarda- 



The Children's Health 189 

tion of these children is probably much greater than would 
be the cost of the attention they need. 

3. The large number of cases of faulty posture may be 
closely related to the fact that most of the seats and desks 
are non-adjustable. It is recommended that at least one 
fourth and eventually all of the pupils be provided with 
adjustable desks and seats. 

4. Too many pupils come to school without having been 
sufficiently fed. It is recommended that all these cases be 
immediately followed up, to the end that better conditions 
of nutrition be secured. 

5. Tuberculosis, which is found in more than 10 per cent 
of public school children, is probably as common in Boise 
as in other cities. It is recommended that teachers be 
better informed as to the symptoms, causes, consequences, 
prevention, and treatment of this disease. 

6. Commendable care has been exercised by the school 
nurse in preventing the spread of contagious diseases. With 
a larger working staff this work can be carried on still more 
efficiently, to the direct profit of the community. 

7. The improper ventilation of many of the schoolrooms 
calls for special attention, with emphasis on the relation of 
pure, fresh, moist air to the health of the children. Recom- 
mendations on this point are made in the chapter on build- 
ings and grounds. 

8. Conditions regarding the proper care of teeth are de- 
plorable, notwithstanding the regular toothbrush drills and 
supplementary instruction given by the school nurse. Edu- 
cation on this point should extend to parents as well as 
pupils. A good beginning in this has already been made. 

9. Nose and throat affections are especially common in 
the Boise schools, due perhaps in large measure to the dry 
air and dust of the schoolrooms. 

10. Imperfect hearing and discharging ears are fre- 
quent. With extended supervision many of these conditions 
can be overcome, or early treatment provided. It is recom- 
mended that hearing tests be made regularly in the schools. 



1 90 The Boise Survey 

11. Defective vision, with its attendant complications, is 
more common than has been supposed. More than 800 
children have been given vision tests during the year. This 
work is excellent, but should be extended to include all the 
pupils. Satisfactory tests of vision can be made by the 
teachers. It is recommended that such tests be given at 
least twice a year, and that adjustments be made according 
to the findings. 

12. More attention should be given to the problem of 
nervousness among the school children. Juvenile delin- 
quency often follows the neglect of this matter. There are 
167 pupils in the Boise schools who are reported as nervous. 

13. It is recommended that special instruction be given 
to children who stutter or stammer, by the establishment of 
speech classes. 

14. It is recommended that further attention be given to 
the development of play activities, with the equipment of 
the playgrounds. There should be at least one playground 
supervisor for the schools. 

15. Some conditions in the Boise schools are sources of in- 
fection because of inadequate sanitation. Regular use of 
disinfectants is urged. 

16. A good beginning has been made in the teaching of 
hygiene in the first six grades. It is recommended that this 
be followed by courses in the seventh and eighth grades. 

17. It is recommended that higher standards of health be 
held regarding the employment of teachers, and that the 
schools cooperate in the maintaining of a physically and 
mentally sound staff by making the school conducive to the 
health and comfort of the teachers. 

18. It is recommended that higher standards be main- 
tained in the selection of janitors; that higher salaries be 
offered in the securing of competent men; and that 
professional advancement be promoted by providing the 
janitors with books and magazines relating to school house- 
keeping. 

19. There are enough children in need of fresh-air treat- 



The Children's Health 191 

ment to justify the establishment of several open-air classes 
or one open-air school. It is suggested that tie Hawthorne 
School be converted to this use. It is recommended that 
future buildings be provided with at least one open-air room 
in each. 



CHAPTER IX 

BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 

(Williams) 

THE BUILDING SITUATION IN BOISE 

NO one would expect to judge the efficiency of a school 
system entirely by its buildings and grounds, but these 
factors are of such importance that they may often serve 
as an index of the educational progress of a city. As a rule, 
good school systems are equipped with good buildings, and 
cities which are negligent with reference to their school 
plant also neglect other things which relate to the education 
and welfare of their children. 

In Boise the school plant is perhaps the greatest outstand- 
ing weakness of the school system. Not only do many of 
the buildings grade far below the standard, but in some 
respects they are so inferior as to raise serious doubts as to 
their present suitability for school purposes. There is not 
a single "standard" building in Boise; there are at least 
five buildings which require immediate improvement. 

It is not difficult to understand why these conditions exist. 
Standards for school-building construction are of relatively 
recent origin. Of the ten schools in Boise, only two have 
been built during the past fifteen years (Figure 29). Since 
that time enormous strides have been taken in school plan- 
ning. The modern building is erected according to the dic- 
tates of science, following the fundamental principles of 
educational hygiene and school efficiency. That these prin- 
ciples did not direct the construction of the Whittier, Lin- 
coln, Garfield, and Hawthorne schools only emphasizes 
the educational progress of the past two decades. 

As Boise has busied herself about other problems, and as 
the city has rapidly enveloped these old structures, their 

192 



Buildings and Grounds 



193 



Years -4:0 

ROOSEVELT (1920) 
LOWELL (1^13) 

WASHIAIOTOA4 (1^12) 
CEAJTRAL (HqOS 

LOAIGFELLOW0«^O5) 
PARK (iq02)i 

HIGH SCHOOL fiq02) 

(IPOQ) 

(1896) 
(1894-) 



^ 




HAWTHORAJE 
GARF/ELD 
LIAJCOLN 
WHITTIER. 



Fig. 29. Ages of Boise School Buildings 

decreasing efficiency has been little realized. The lack of 
adequate fire protection, the insufficiency of lighting and 
ventilation in many of the classrooms, the lack of means 
for humidifying the air, the use of unsanitary basement 
rooms for janitors' living quarters, the lack of telephone 
connections between the schools and the superintendent's 
office, the inadequacy of library facilities and almost total 
absence of playground equipment, have been left unnoticed 
or imattended to for so long that they seem to effect no 
protest from the community. 

The problem here takes on three aspects: first, the im- 
provement of the present buildings, bringing them up as 
nearly to the standard as possible; second, the abandonment 
of the oldest buildings and replacing them with modern 
structures; third, the formulation of a building policy that 
embodies the ideals that make for the highest school effi- 
ciency. That the consideration of these steps may be based 
upon existing facts, let us view the Boise school plant in the 
light of standard measurements. 



194 The Boise Survey 



BUILDINGS MEASURED BY STANDARD SCALE 

The method used is the application of the ^ 'Score Card 
for City School Buildings/' by Dr. George D. Strayer of 
Columbia University. This is a guide for the inspection 
and grading of school buildings, following a detailed outline 
of the important items of school-building construction, each 
of which is accorded a standard number of points. The 
scale is divided into looo points, divided with relative 
weighting among five general items: Site^ Building, Service 
systems. Classrooms , Special rooms. Each of these is di- 
vided into several smaller items, and each separate part is 
given a number of points according to its relative importance. 
The values for the scale have been derived from the scorings 
of a large number of persons competent to judge school 
buildings. 

The ratings of the Boise buildings were made by the 
writer after a careful study of the data gathered through a 
personal inspection of each building, accompanied by the 
school principal. The study also included interviews with 
the superintendent of buildings, and with janitors, teachers, 
and other school officials, as well as the checking of data in 
the office of the superintendent. It is believed that the 
observations were made with sufficient accuracy and 
thoroughness to warrant the judgments rendered on at least 
the more important items. 

The grading of each building in comparison with the 
standard is presented in detail in Table 38. The compara- 
tive gross ratings are shown in Figure 30. The number of 
points in each case, represented by the length of the bar, 
may be easily read on a percentage basis. Thus, the Lowell 
School, grading 837 points, rates 87.7 per cent; the high 
school, 83.6 per cent, etc. The lowest rating is that of the 
Whittier School, 59.6 per cent. These figures represent only 
the total scores. It does not follow that because a school 
grades higher than another in the gross score, it is necessarily 
better in each separate item. On the whole, however, the 



Buildings and Grounds 



195 



TABLE 38 
Ratings of Boise School Buildings by Strayer Scale 





1 

1 

C/3 


1 


13 

1 


6 


s 







1 


1 


-t 
^ 


c 


C 

1 

50 
25 
40 




I. Site 


125 


115 


118 


115 


124 


120 


118 


118 


105 
40 
30 
35 


120 






A. Location 

B. Drainage 

C. Size, form 


55 
30 
40 


55 
30 
30 


53 
30 
35 


55 
20 
40 


54 
30 

40 


55 
30 
35 


55 

28 

35 


53 

25 
40 


55 
30 

35 


II. Buildings 


165 


138 


145 


113 


105 


102 


148 


161 


126 


161 


108 


A. Location 

B. Exterior 

C. Interior 

(Building faces) .... 


25 
60 
80 


22 
56 
60 
S 


21 
58 
66 
W 


23 
48 
42 
w 


22 

41 
42 
S 


18 
42 
42 

N 


23 
58 
67 
E 


30 
58 
73 
E 


21 

51 

54 

E-W 


30 
58 
73 
E 


18 
39 
51 

N 


III. Servdce Systems 


280 


212 


219 


160 


155 


167 


215 


218 


165 


218 


136 


A. Heating, ventilation . 

B. Fire protection. . . . 

C. Cleaning system . . . 

D. Artificial lighting . . . 

E. Electric systems . . . 

F. Water supply .... 

G. Toilets ....... 

H. Mechanical systems 


70 

65 
20 
20 
15 
30 
50 

ID 


55 
42 
10 

15 
13 

25 

47 

5 


60 
50 
10 

15 
9 

25 

42 

8 


40 
32 
15 
10 

20 

10 


35 
29 
20 
10 

20 

31 
10 


40 
32 
20 

ID 

2 
20 

10 


60 
51 
15 
15 
5 

23 
36 
10 


60 
48 
15 
15 


25 
45 
10 


50 
Z1 
10 
10 

20 

30 
8 


60 
48 
15 
15 


25 
45 
10 


40 

31 
20 
10 

20 

5 
10 


IV. Classrooms 


290 


252 


267 


190 


212 


200 


252 


264 


239 


264 


185 


A. Location, connections . 

B. Construction, finish. . 

C. Illumination 

D. Cloakrooms 

E. Equipment 


35 
90 

85 

25 
55 


30 
81 
78 
15 
48 


35 

84 

20 

45 


30 
65 
50 
10 
35 


35 
67 
50 
10 
50 


35 
66 
50 
10 
39 


35 
84 
78 
20 
35 


35 
87 
78 
20 

44 


30 
77 
67 
15 

50 


35 
87 
78 
20 
44 


35 

65 

45 

8 

32 


V. Special Rooms 


140 


119 


53 


45 


35 


45 


53 


76 


60 


76 


47 


A. General use 

B. School officials .... 

C. Others 


65 
35 
40 


48 

31 
40 


7 
16 

30 


30 


5 


30 


7 

8 

30 


10 

8 

35 


28 

8 

40 


20 
10 
30 


28 

8 

40 


9 
8 

30 


Total Score 


1000 


836 


802 


623 


631 


634 


786 


837 


695 


834 


596 



196 



The Boise Survey 



SWNDflRD SCORE. 
LOWELL nsr 

HI6H SCHOOL 636 
WaSHINOTON 
CENTRAL 



paws O IQO . 200 300 AOO SOO GOO 700 QOO 900 10 



034. 
602 

LOr^GFEUOW 798 
P/JRK 6SS 

LINCOLN 634 

HAWTHORNE 63, 
S/JPFIELD 6ZZ 

WHITTIER 596 

POINTS < 



ZOO 3bO 400 



Fig. 30. Gross Efficiency Ratings of Buildings, by Strayer Scale 

total scores are a good relative index of the general efficiency 
of the buildings. The ten Boise buildings obtained a total 
score of 7274 points. By the standards used it may be said 
that the efficiency of the school plant is approximately 73 
per cent. 

Let us now review in detail the observations on which 
the scores were based. The outline follows the items as they 
appear in Dr. Strayer's scale. 



THE SCHOOL GROUNDS 

The sites chosen, on the whole, are highly favorable from 
the standpoint of accessibility and environment. All but the 
Park School are located in residence districts, which are 
relatively free from noise, smoke, etc. Dusty streets are 
found in many of these districts, but with the improvement 
of street sprinkling and the extension of paving this objec- 
tionable feature will be removed. The accessibility of most 
of the schools to the homes of the children is especially 
commendable. 

The Park School has a most unfortunate location. Its 
proximity to the railroad yards and business streets notice- 
ably impairs the school work. Often in warm weather it is 
necessary to close the windows in some of the classrooms be- 



Buildings and Grounds 197 

cause of the clouds of black smoke and soot which drift in 
from locomotives across the street. The noise from passing 
trucks and trains frequently interrupts the class work. It 
is dangerous for children to have to cross business streets, 
going to and from school. Traffic regulations should be 
rigidly enforced on the three streets which intersect at the 
corner of the school grounds. A special officer should be 
stationed at this point. It would seem that the value of this 
property and its unsuitability for school purposes should 
lead to its conversion to other purposes. 

In most cases the soil is suitable for satisfactory drain- 
age. There should be sufficient slope on all sides of the 
buildings so that the water will quickly run off. In the 
Lowell and Longfellow schools there is room for improve- 
ment in this respect. 

The grounds range in size from 10,000 square feet (Gar- 
field) to 66,600 square feet (Lowell). There is usually suffi- 
cient space to allow from 50 to 100 square feet of play space 
for each child. This minimum presupposes, of course, that 
the slope of the grounds is adapted to play purposes. 

Some of the more important facts relative to sites and 
buildings are shown in Table 39. 



PLAYGROUND EQUIPMENT 

There is practically a total absence of playground appara- 
tus in the Boise schools. The entire equipment consists of 
one portable slide, which is passed around from school to 
school and which happened to be at the Garfield School at 
the time of the survey. In two of the schools rough turning 
bars had been made by the older boys. The playgrounds 
are as handicapped as schoolrooms would be if there were 
no desks, books, or pencils. There is some doubt as to 
whether the playground can be said to be less important 
than the classroom. Without adequate facilities for organ- 
ized play the children are deprived not only of the enjoyment 
they deserve, but also of real necessities for their proper 



igS 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 39 

Miscellaneous Data on School Property in Boise from Figures 
Supplied by Superintendent of Buildings and Clerk of Board 
of Trustees 









t« 










^ 


Property 




in 


11 


to 

?^3 


8-3 


§ 2 


c 
t £ 


-o 
6 




P pq 


:2;u 


"^^ 


CA) W 


Upq 


'CnO 


uo 


% 




ri902] 
















High school . 


1908 
I1912J 








$213,000 


280 X 300 


$45 ,000 


920 


Central . . . 


1905 


15 


3 


85 X 128 


55,000 


150 X 300 


14,000 


387 


Garfield . . . 


1899 


10 




62 X 75 


20,207 


i(i50 X 200) 


2,250 


251 


Hawthorne . 


1900 


4 




36X55 


6,000 


I acre 


7,500 


103 


Lincoln . . . 


1896 


6 


I 


70x72 


12,000 


122 X 150 


14,000 


178 


Longfellow . . 


1905 


13 


I 


66 X 128 


50,000 


122 X 300 


10,000 


431 


Lowell . . . 


1913 


9 


I 


64 X 102 


31,234 


244 X 300 


5,000 


244 


Park .... 


1902 






64X79 













1911 


16 


I 


52 X 104 


41,208 


i(309 X 468) 


15,000 


415 


Washington . 


1912 


8 


I 


64 X 102 


47,000 


244 X 300 


15,000 


277 


Whittier . . . 


1894 


7 


2 


68x78 


18,000 


122 X 300 


9,000 


221 


Roosevelt ^ . 


1920 


8 


4 


63 X 120 


60,000 


244 X 300 


8,000 




Athletic Park . 












40 acres 


21,500 




Agric. tract . 












122 X 200 


8,000 





1 Roosevelt building now under construction. 

development. A relatively large vacant space is in itself no 
longer considered a "playground" in the present-day con- 
ception of education. There should be at least a minimum 
allotment of standard apparatus for every school, based 
upon the distribution and the ages of the pupils. 



ORIENTATION OF BUILDINGS 



All four directions of the compass are represented in the 
facings of Boise school buildings. Three face east, two west, 
two south, two north, and one (Park) has frontage on both 



Buildings and Grounds 199 

east and west. Evidently their orientation has been deter- 
mined by chance, rather than by the requirements of school 
efficiency. The direction which a building faces often has 
much to do with the amount and direction of the light in 
the classrooms, the exposure to storms, the danger from ice- 
coated or wet steps, and other factors definitely related to 
the welfare of the children. 

The position of the building on the site is another im- 
portant matter in which external appearance, rather than 
utility, is permitted to be the deciding factor. Many of the 
Boise buildings are located at such points that an efficient 
playground cannot be made from the remaining space. The 
Park School (Fig. 31) is an example of such placing. The 
Longfellow, Central, and Whittier schools also divide the 
site to the disadvantage of the playground. Improvement 
in this respect must be confined to the location of future 
buildings. 

TYPE OF BUILDINGS 

All buildings are of the two-story-basement t3^e. The 
older buildings are square, with shingled sloping roofs. The 
newer ones are rectangular, with flat roofs. All are con- 
structed of brick, six being of pressed or hard brick. None 
of the buildings may be said to be strictly fireproof. All 
are apparently in good repair, indicating good supervision 
on the part of the building inspector. The general ap- 
pearance of most of the buildings is pleasing. They have 
evidently been built for strict utility, and are commendably 
free from the extravagant architectural features which char- 
acterize the schools of some cities. As a group they are, in 
appearance, creditable public buildings. 

INTERIOR CONSTRUCTION 

Practically all interior work, including walls, floors, and 
stairways, is of wood construction. Stairways at Lowell 
and Washington and in the newer part of the high school 
are overlaid with composition material, which adds much to 



200 



The Boise Survey 




,-.^--. 3oqff 

Fig. 31. Plan of School Grounds at Park School 
(From measurements made by principal and pupils) 



Buildings and Grounds 201 

their efficiency. In the other buildings the wooden steps, 
with the usual noise, dust, and unevenness due to wear, are 
noticeable features of the buildings. The resulting risk 
from fire should call for special attention. All banisters are 
of wood, and in no case is there a lower one for the small 
children. 

The corridors appear to be left-over space rather than to 
have been definitely planned. In the older buildings they are 
too narrow and too poorly arranged to allow for proper 
lighting and ventilation. In the Central School the wide 
hallway is used as an auditorium, in the absence of any other 
space for assembly purposes. Corridors should range from 
II to 13 feet in width, should be well lighted and ventilated, 
suitable for decorations, but should not be used for class- 
rooms. The requirements are satisfactorily met in the 
Lowell and Washington schools. All corridors were found 
relatively clean and free from obstructions. There is a 
noticeable lack of decoration as one enters the buildings. 

BASEMENTS 

All buildings are equipped with basements, which are 
generally utilized for furnace, storerooms, and toilets. In 
most cases they are deeper than should be allowed, and in 
several instances the walls are not made waterproof. Light- 
ing, ventilation, and heating in these rooms are wholly in- 
adequate. A basement room that cannot be made sanitary 
should be abandoned for any school purpose. At Lincoln, 
Central, and the high school, the janitors live in this under- 
ground space. At the Longfellow School the janitor has but 
recently moved out. The writer closely inspected these 
quarters, and does not hesitate to pronounce all of them 
unfit for human habitation. The stained and crumbling 
walls in the rooms formerly occupied by the janitor's family 
at the Longfellow School were alone sufficient justification 
for his exodus. At the other schools in which janitors live 
the conditions are fully as unfit. Inadequate toilet and 



202 The Boise Survey 

laundry facilities, lack of ventilation, and the necessity for 
almost constant use of artificial light cause one to wonder 
how any saving can be effected by inducing janitors to 
occupy such places. 

The furnace rooms are for the most part located in dark 
parts of the basement, access to which is not easy. A splen- 
did example of well-lighted and conveniently arranged fur- 
nace room is that of the newer wing of the high school. This 
stands in striking contrast to the dingy living quarters of 
the janitor in the other end of the building. 



HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The heating plants of the new buildings are of the plenum 
type, but various sorts of systems, even to the use of stoves, 
may be found in the city. The most satisfactory plants are 
those at the Lowell, Washington, Central, and Longfellow 
schools. These plants, however, are more strictly for heat- 
ing purposes, and little or no correct ventilation is obtained 
from them. Although air from the outside is drawn in, there 
is no provision for washing it or adding moisture. At the 
Longfellow and Central schools the intakes are located just 
above the level of the playgrounds, and clouds of dirt are 
constantly blown into the classrooms by the fans. The dis- 
colored walls and ceilings show but one of the minor results 
of this. The injury to the health of the children is not so 
apparent but is of vastly more importance. At the high 
school one of the intakes is located in a hidden nook just 
above the level of the ground on the fiat roof of the furnace 
room, a space which serves as a general catch-all for blow- 
ing dirt, trash, etc. Such an intake is very unsatisfactory 
but could be greatly improved by elevating the intake shaft 
to a higher level, a change that would be feasible and in- 
expensive. 

One of the greatest limitations in the heating plants of 
the Boise schools lies in the absence of any method for 
adding moisture to the warmed air which the fans force into 



Buildings and Grounds 203 

the schoolrooms. Increasing the temperature of the air 
in the winter to the extent necessary for heating decreases 
the ratio of moisture as much as 60 or 70 per cent. In other 
words, the air taken into the furnace rooms on an ordinary 
winter day is delivered to the pupils with perhaps one third 
as much moisture as the same volume of air originally con- 
tained. As a result, the air of some schoolrooms is drier 
than that of a desert. Moreover, as already suggested, it 
may be accompanied by many dust particles which attack 
the dry membranes of the nose and throat. The resulting 
danger from contagious diseases, to say nothing of the dis- 
comfort to pupils and teachers, is greater than is commonly 
realized. Several methods have been devised for introducing 
moisture into warmed air, and their cost is more than com- 
pensated by the lessening of one of the greatest evils of the 
schoolroom. 



FIRE PROTECTION 

In the recent survey of the schools of Denver, Dr. Ter- 
man wrote concerning fire protection in the schools: 

Notwithstanding the large number of school buildings of old 
construction, and notwithstanding the many antiquated heating 
plants still in use, the school children of Denver are well guarded 
from the danger of fire. All the buildings having two or more 
stories are reasonably well supplied with fire escapes. Nearly all 
classrooms are provided with two doors, and panic bolts are to be 
found on the outside doors of all buildings. 

Although similar conditions prevail in Boise with reference 
to the age of school buildings and the dangers from other 
sources, it cannot be said that the children are "well guarded 
from the danger of fire." There are but two fire escapes in 
the entire school plant. One of these is at the Garfield 
School, opening from a window of the attic, which is used 
for a classroom. The other is at the rear of the Hawthorne 
School and is made entirely of wood. There is not a panic 
bolt in the entire city, and many classrooms have but one 



204 ^^^ Boise Survey 

door. No building is equipped with fire doors. Four of the 
buildings — Whittier, Hawthorne, Garfield, and Lincoln — 
have no fire hose. In the other schools the water connected 
with the fire hose is turned off in the basement at what 
seems to be the most inaccessible point in the building. In 
the Longfellow and Park schools it is necessary to crawl 
through dark passages in order to reach the tap. This is 
due, the survey staff was told, to the supposition that if the 
fire hose could be turned on from the halls it would be 
tampered with by the pupils.^ 

All buildings are equipped with some form of hand ex- 
tinguisher, although the supply is insufficient. In some in- 
stances these, too, are in places which are not readily ac- 
cessible. Teachers and principals should be better in- 
structed with reference to the location and use of apparatus. 
One teacher stated that for several years she has had a 
fire extinguisher hanging near the door of her classroom, but 
that she had not the remotest idea how she would make use 
of it in case of fire. Some teachers do not know where the 
extinguishers are located. It would doubtless require some 
time for them to find one during the excitement of a fire. 

The fire alarm is sounded on the regular school gongs, 
which are of the spring type, operated by pulling a cord. 
There are no electric signals and no connection with the city 
fire department except where out-of-door alarm boxes occur 
near the school. In most cases it is necessary to cross the 
playground or the street to reach the alarm. There is no 
method of signaling from the basements or upper stories, 
the gong usually being operated from the main floor only. 

The electric wiring appears to have been well done and 
has been subjected to rigid inspection. Protection from 
this source, however, should be systematically considered. 

1 The writer made special inquiry on this point, and found that the 
principals, with one exception, believed this excuse to be absolutely ground- 
less. It is purely a matter of supervision, they said, whether or not pupils 
tampered with the hose. Even if it were true, we are unable to see how 
such an order could have been given, when the very lives of the children 
are at stake. 



Buildings and Grounds 205 

The fireproofness of the buildings has already received 
comment. The fact that all are of inflammable construction 
should in itself be sufficient reason for better extinguishing 
apparatus. Eleven years ago the disastrous school fire at 
Collinwood, Ohio, occurred. The origin of the fire is un- 
known, but it was supposed to have resulted from defective 
furnace piping. The building was a two-story brick struc- 
ture, with wood floors, stairways, and partitions, as are the 
schools in Boise. In type it resembled the Garfield, Lincoln, 
and Whit tier schools, except that it was provided with iron 
fire escapes and panic bolts on all outside doors. When the 
fire alarm was sounded the children in the upper classrooms 
passed through the coat rooms, which open into the corridor, 
as they do in Boise, and crowded together in the hallway. 
Before the congestion could be relieved the flames swept 
through the building, and 173 children and 2 teachers were 
burned to death. Although Boise has had no such experi- 
ence as yet, the tragedy could be repeated here at any time. 
No efforts should be spared to secure the best protection 
possible to the lives of the children. 

Special commendation is due for the excellence of the 
fire drills in the Boise schools and the frequency with which 
they are held. The writer has never seen school buildings 
emptied more quickly and with less confusion than he wit- 
nessed in Boise. Every building was emptied in less than 
one minute, and in some cases the entire time consumed, 
from the ringing of the gong to the exit of the last pupil, was 
but 40 seconds. While this does not, and cannot, entirely 
make up for the lack of other fire protection, it is a relief to 
know that such an excellent practice is in effect. 

CLEANING SYSTEM 

No mechanical systems for cleaning have been installed. 
Janitors use brooms and sweeping compound. An ample 
supply of the compound was found in all buildings, and no 
difficulty seems to be encountered in securing enough for its 



2o6 The Boise Survey 

daily use. Feather dusters have been abolished/ On the 
whole, the buildings were found to be clean and orderly. 
Floors are cleaned and oiled once a year. In Boise this is 
not sufficient, as may be inferred from the large areas from 
which the oil has been worn off. The nature of the soil in 
this locality is such that it acts almost with the efficiency of 
sand-paper when adhering to the soles of shoes. Wherever 
oil is thus removed, the floor becomes absorbent and retains 
particles of dirt with the disease germs that often adhere to 
them. Three or four oilings a year would be none too many. 
Vacuum-cleaning systems should be installed in future 
buildings. 

Windows are washed twice a year in most of the schools. 
All instructions relative to such matters are issued by the 
superintendent of buildings, and principals are not author- 
ized to issue modifying or additional orders. Some of the 
bad results of this may be observed by visitors to the schools. 
The necessity for placing janitors under the direct super- 
vision of the principal is referred to elsewhere in this report. 

ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING 

Provisions for illuminating the school buildings during 
the evenings or on dark days are inadequate. Electric wir- 
ing is limited chiefly to the principals' offices, halls, base- 
ments, and a few classrooms. In anticipation of the wider 
use of the school plant for community service, all buildings, 
or at least the newer ones, should be well equipped for 
electric lighting. 

CLOCKS, GONGS, TELEPHONES 

Electric bell systems connected with clocks have been 
installed only in the high school and at the Cen- 

1 One janitor, evidently under the impression that the prohibition of 
feather dusters was purely a matter of economy on the part of the board 
of education, purchased one himself and generously contributes its daily 
use to the school. He was highly surprised when told that the ruling was 
based on hygienic principles. This suggests the need for a lecture course 
for janitors. 



Buildings and Grounds 207 

tral School. The latter system has been out of order for 
some time, and was not operating during the survey period. 
A general lack of clocks, even of the ordinary type, was 
noted. All schoolrooms should have clocks, preferably self- 
winding, with central and bell connections. 

Gongs are operated by hand. These should be replaced 
as soon as possible by electric gongs which may ring by 
push button from all parts of the building. This is espe- 
cially necessary for purposes of sounding the fire alarm. 
There should also be connections with the city fire depart- 
ment, to avoid the delay resulting from finding the fire alarm 
box on the street. 

One of the most serious needs in the physical equipment 
is for telephones. Even at the high school there are but 
three, including those in the offices of the superintendent 
and principal. None is provided for the elementary schools. 
The amount of time wasted during the course of a school 
year, if it could be accurately tabulated, would probably 
convince any one that no economy is effected by the lack of 
communication facilities. In one school the teachers con- 
tribute to a fund for part rental of the telephone in the 
janitor's basement quarters. In one instance the principal 
pays for the use of a telephone in a neighboring residence. 
Boys are taken from their classes to carry messages which 
could be just as well conveyed by telephone. When we 
realize that modern school buildings are being equipped with 
regular telephone connections, with private systems con- 
necting all classrooms, we may justly urge improvement of 
the Boise schools in this respect. 

DRINKING FOUNTAINS 

Drinking fountains are provided for all schools, but in 
insufficient number, at least in the elementary schools. All 
fountains are located indoors. The "drinking line" follow- 
ing recess periods, a characteristic feature in the Boise 
schools, testifies to the need for more fountains. The chil- 



2o8 The Boise Survey 

dren enter the building in single files, one column for each 
fountain, and drink each in turn. Although in most in- 
stances this was carried on with reasonably good order, the 
method does not lend itself to the best results. The ne- 
cessity for hurried, formal stops prevents some children from 
drinking all they want and drinking in the correct manner.^ 
The writer observed instances of children passing by the 
fountain without drinking, rather than go through this for- 
mality. 

It appears that the distribution of drinking fountains has 
been governed, if at all, by factors other than the distribu- 
tion of the children. At the Lincoln School, for example, 
there are four fountains for about i8o children. At the 
Longfellow School the same number of fountains are pro- 
vided for 440 children. There are also four each in the 
Whittier School for 221 children and at Central for 387 
children. These are located in the ends of the halls, two 
on each floor, their use being confined largely to the period 
of the ''drinking line." The location of fountains should be 
based upon their accessibility at times when children are 
most apt to want a drink, and the number should be based 
upon the number of children using them. All playgrounds 
should be provided with fountains in addition to the regular 
number indoors. There should be a fountain for every 75 
children. The drinking of plenty of fresh water during the 
day is a health requirement that the schools can well afford 
to encourage with an adequate supply of cool bubbling 
fountains. 

LAVATORIES AND BATHS 

Wash basins have been installed in the basements of most 
of the buildings, but no bathing facilities are provided in the 
elementary schools. School baths are imperative if health 
and sanitation are to be properly taught. Showers could be 

^ A special observation was made at one of the schools relative to the 
correct use of the drinking fountains. Nearly one half of the children ob- 
served touched the metal parts with their mouths. This is due, perhaps, 
not so much to haste as to the lack of instruction. 



Buildings and Grounds 209 

installed in all buildings at relatively small expense. Their 
cost would be more than compensated by the educational 
and social results which could be obtained from their use. 
Fortunately, roller towels and common soap have been ban- 
ished from the Boise schools. 



TOILETS 

In Dr. Strayer's looo-point scale for grading buildings an 
allowance of 50 points is made for toilets. The schools in 
Boise grade from 5 to 47 points in respect to this item. The 
best systems were found at the high school, Lowell, Wash- 
ington, and Central. The others may be said to be dis- 
tinctly inferior. They are inadequate, poorly located, and 
unsanitary. Little or no effort has been made to grade the 
height of the seats according to the size of the pupils. The 
automatic flushing system which operates only during recess 
periods or at the option of the janitor should be replaced by 
a more up-to-date system. In some cases the intervals be- 
tween flushing is too long. At times the system fails to 
operate. It is the common practice of the janitor to turn 
the water on only during recess and play periods, notwith- 
standing the fact that they are used by the children during 
the regular school hours. This illustrates another significant 
result of keeping from the principals the authority for jani- 
torial supervision. 

The worst toilets are those of the Park and Whittier 
schools. The former are located in the passageway between 
the old and new parts of the building. (See plan in Figure 
31.) Were it not for the fact that they are above ground 
and well lighted, they could be justly condemned. In order 
to pass from one part of the building to the other, it is nec- 
essary to go either through these toilets or to use a frame 
bridge which has been attached to the exterior of this con- 
necting section. The arrangement makes the toilets ac- 
cessible, however, both from the playgrounds and from other 
parts of the building. 



2 10 The Boise Survey 

The Whittier toilet is one of the worst the writer has ever 
seen at a city school. Located in a small, flat-roofed build- 
ing without windows, it receives no light, heat, or ventilation. 
Were it not for the assistance of the janitor, in whose hands 
rests the authority to turn on the electric light, the interior 
of the building would have been in total darkness. The 
use of this light, the janitor stated, is limited to recess and 
play periods. This toilet is equipped with the ''range" sys- 
tem of seats, the flushing of which automatically occurs 
every 15 to 18 minutes between the hours of 10 and 3 only. 
The two sides, for boys and girls respectively, contain but 
five seats each, all of the same height, and a single roll of 
toilet paper is provided in each division of the building. The 
floors and walls are damp, and the place could be no less 
sanitary if it were located 50 feet underground. The build- 
ing inspector concurs in the writer's opinion that this toilet 
should be immediately condemned. 

Few of the buildings are provided with separate rolls of 
toilet paper for each seat. The argument that to do so 
would result in the occasional waste of paper should be 
ignored, in the light of health and sanitation. The toilet 
rooms should be thoroughly disinfected and cleaned at regu- 
lar and frequent intervals. Wherever possible, provision 
should be made for letting more daylight into these rooms. 
The floors and walls should be more often treated with a 
non-absorbent. Cement is not a satisfactory material for 
toilet floors by reason of the almost unpreventable action 
produced by uric acid. Asphalt or tile floors are far su- 
perior. The toilet rooms should be as well lighted and as 
clean as any other room in the building. Their location in 
the basement should call for additional emphasis on these 
points, rather than serve as an excuse for their negligence. 

CLASSROOMS 

As a rule, the classrooms have been well located and have 
received considerable attention in the planning of the build- 



Buildings and Grounds 



211 



ings, at least as regards accessibility and convenience. They 
approach the standard size and shape as well as may be ex- 
pected from the age of the buildings. The floors are gen- 
erally of hard wood and are in good condition. The doors 
open outward and in the newer buildings are constructed 
without thresholds and transoms. The walls are hard, dur- 
able plaster, although of an undesirable rough finish in some 
buildings. 

BLACKBOARDS 

Of the 86 classrooms reporting, 53 were equipped with 
slate blackboards, 2 5 with coated plaster, and 8 with compo- 
sition boards. The newer buildings are equipped with 
slate. The plaster and composition boards are unsatisfac- 
tory, as they crack easily, w^ear smooth, and are subject to 
other limitations. Slate or ground-glass boards should be 
substituted for these wherever possible. 

Measurements made by the teachers show that the black- 
boards in many of the rooms are set without much regard 
for the heights of the children who use them. The stand- 
ards for school-building construction call for a carefully 
graduated scale of heights, from grade to grade, ranging 

TABLE 40 

Height of Blackboards (from Floor to Chalk Rail) in New'er Build- 
ings OF Boise, in Comparison with Standard Heights. Measure- 
ments Made by Teachers 



Grade 


Standard 


Central 


Longfellow 


Lowell 


Washington 




30 m. 


40 m. 


39 m. 


32 in. 




7 


30 " 


36-39 " 


39 " 


32 " 




6 


28 " 


31 " 


39 " 


31-34 " 


30-34 in. 


5 


28 " 


30-40 " 


36-39 " 


32 " 


30-34 " 


4 


26 " 


30-40 " 


30 " 


34 " 


31-32 " 


3 


26 " 


31 " 


31 " 


26-34 " 


28-34 " 


2 


24 " 


29-40 " 


30 " 


26-34 " 


28-34 " 


I 


24 " 


40 " 


30 " 


32 " 





212 



The Boise Survey 



from 24 to 30 inches for the elementary schools and from 
32 to 36 inches for the high school. The comparison for 
three of the newer buildings is shown in Table 40. These 
are representative of the whole city. Wherever the boards 
are too high, as in the case of the lower grades of the Central 
School, they should be lowered, or a platform built under- 
neath to bring the children to the height necessary. Of 
these two corrective measures, the former has more advan- 
tages. In the Lowell School, one of the newest in the city, 
the blackboards are consistently too high. In future build- 
ings the standard heights should be insisted upon. 

LIGHTING OF CLASSROOMS 

Approximately one half of the classrooms in the Boise 
schools are correctly lighted. Five of the buildings are 
constructed for unilateral lighting, with reasonably satis- 
factory distribution. Four of the buildings, Garfield, Haw- 
thorne, Lincoln, and Whittier, have retained the back-left 
lighting, together with other undesirable features common to 
buildings erected twenty years ago. The standard ratio of 
one-fifth glass area to floor area is obtained in about two 
thirds of the classrooms. The distribution may be seen in 
Figure 32. 

Of a total of the 2>2, rooms reporting, 1 8 are provided with 
one square foot of glass to every four square feet of floor 
space. In 37 rooms the ratio is 1:5; in 13 rooms, 1:6; and 
in 1 1 rooms, less than 1:6. In one room the teacher's meas- 



POOf? LIGHTINB- 




ONC FOURTH % ONE FIFTH 
30 



(standard; 



• ^NE 5IXTH .l.E$5 THAN Vfe 
tea so 



Fig. 32. Distribution of Window-Glass Area in Boise Schoolrooms 



Buildings and Grounds 213 

urements revealed a ratio of 1:18. There are perhaps 800 
children in Boise who regularly attend classrooms in which 
the construction of the building makes it impossible to se- 
cure sufficient daylight. 

WINDOWS 

Fully as important as the glass area is the location of the 
windows. The lighting of schoolrooms exclusively from the 
pupils' left, as shown in Figure 33, has long been an ac- 
cepted standard for school buildings. Windows on two 
sides of the room, however, were found in 5 schools and in 
a total of 24 rooms.^ In many of these rooms the windows 
have been placed far enough apart so that the intervening 
space may be used for blackboards. This causes the light 
to enter in streaks, and often the pupils' desks are located 
in the shadows. Photometric tests which have been made 
in rooms of this kind show that such places are so dark that 
eye strain is sure to result from their use. Few business 
men would tolerate such lighting in their offices. The space 
between windows should never exceed 12 inches, and it is 
preferable to have the windows in steel frames which en- 
tirely replace the part of the brick or stone structure which 
occurs in the lighting area. 

Rear windows should be permanently blocked, or at least 
treated so as to minimize their blinding effect. Not only is 
the teacher compelled to face them for long periods, with 
resulting eye strain, but every pupil is directly in his own 
light. The cross lights in rooms lighted from two sides 
produce numerous evil effects. 

WINDOW SHADES 

The window shades, except in the Lowell and Washington 
schools, are unsatisfactory. The common opaque green 
shade suspended from the top of the window only serves to 
cut down the amount of light and to eliminate the light 
nearest the ceiling, which is the most essential part. The 

1 The Longfellow School has unilateral lighting in all but one room. 



214 



The Boise Survey 




Buildings and Grounds 215 

figures showing that two thirds of the rooms have sufficient 
light only apply with the shades removed from the windows. 
Most teachers do not know how to operate window shades, 
and cannot be expected to learn with the window equipment 
provided. The writer visited rooms having the standard 
one-fifth window to floor area in which the position of the 
shades reduced this proportion to less than one tenth. In 
fact, it is quite common to find but one half of the window 
space in use where opaque top-rolling shades are used. 
Some teachers apparently think that the appearance of their 
room is improved by keeping the shades pulled down to the 
middle of the window. If the shades rolled at the bottom, 
the same aesthetic effect could be produced with better light- 
ing results. Correctly built window shades are completely 
adjustable, and are made of translucent material. The 
purpose of a shade is not to cut down the amount of light, 
but only to prevent direct sunlight from striking the desks. 
Translucent shades diffuse these direct rays without the 
total loss of light. With better knowledge of correct lighting 
and with better equipment, teachers may be relied upon for 
more uniform results. 

CLOAKROOMS AND V^ARDROBES 

Cloakrooms are mostly of the closed type, and do not 
lend themselves to good lighting, ventilation, or ready super- 
vision. Future buildings should have wardrobes constructed 
with classroom connections, as shown in Figure 33. 

CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT 

Seats and desks are of the stationary, non-adjustable type, 
except in the Park School and in a few rooms in other build- 
ings. At the Longfellow School many desks are incorrectly 
placed, and can be changed only by laborious effort involved 
in removing and replacing the screws by which they are se- 
cured to the floor. The placing and adjusting of desks 
should always be done under the direct supervision of the 
principal, and not left to janitors or carpenters. 



2i6 The Boise Survey 

Teachers' desks are all placed on the floor, usually to one 
side of the room, without platforms. This is to be com- 
mended. The teacher's platform, inherited from the early 
schools, is still too frequently found in other cities. 

Classroom bulletin boards were found in several schools. 
These are a valuable asset to the teachers, and their wider 
use should be encouraged. Teachers who have them speak 
highly of their instructional value. Tacking space over the 
blackboards should be provided wherever possible. 

SPECIAL ROOMS 

In regard to this item the Boise schools are especially 
limited. There is not an auditorium, library, gymnasium, 
lunch room, or satisfactory playroom in any of the ele- 
mentary schools. The need for playrooms is especially 
urgent, as testified by the efforts made by the principals to 
utilize vacant space for this purpose. The basement rooms 
at the Washington and Lowell schools serve in an emergency, 
but in view of the many purposes to which it is necessary 
to put them, do not satisfactorily meet the needs of the 
school. Fortunately, the climate of Boise permits of many 
out-of-door days for play. The lack of gymnasiums is a 
good argument for the better equipment of the playgrounds. 
The use of corridors for auditorium purposes is not the best 
practice, because of the inadequate heating, lighting, and 
ventilation. The eating of lunches in the classrooms is not 
to be encouraged. Relatively few of the children in Boise 
bring their lunches, however, and there are indications that 
satisfactory supervision is obtained for those who do remain 
over the noon hour. 

The newer buildings contain principals' offices, but in the 
older ones it has been necessary to resort to makeshift. The 
present teaching schedule for principals leaves little time to 
attend to office duties, but the need is none the less impor- 
tant. The business of a large school like Park cannot be 
efficiently transacted in a blocked-off hallway. Rest rooms 



Buildings and Grounds 



217 




i-YC/JR^ POINTS'^ 

Fig. 34. Relation between Age and Efficiency of Boise School Buildings 



for teachers are also too few in number. In no case has the 
school provided proper equipment for these. The rest room 
at the Central School was furnished by donation from the 
teachers. In most of the other schools the principal's office 
serves in lieu of other special rooms. The school nurse uses 
the hallway where other space does not happen to be vacant. 
Janitors have no separate rooms, except where basement 
living quarters are provided, and usually sit in the furnace 
room or in the hallway. 



AGE AND EFFICIENCY 



That the efficiency of a building decreases with age is not 
surprising. Many of the items on which efficiency is judged 



2i8 The Boise Survey 

refer to improvements of relatively recent origin. Where 
buildings have been reconstructed, or where additions have 
been made, th^ improvement of the general quality of the 
school has usually followed. This is manifestly true of the 
high school. The two newer wings make up for many of 
the shortcomings of the old central portion. 

The interesting relation between age and efficiency in the 
Boise school buildings is shown in Figure 34. The arrange- 
ment of the elementary schools according to their ratings is 
exactly the reverse of their arrangement according to age. 
The newer the building, the higher its score. 

This relation is not entirely due to the structural advan- 
tages of the newer schools. Poorer equipment is tolerated 
in an old building than would be permitted in a new one. 
This distinction is often unconscious on the part of school 
officials, but it is common. Even an acknowledgment of 
the greater danger from fire is not made apparent by more 
extensive equipment in old buildings. These conditions may 
easily be corrected. 

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. The school plant in Boise, although favorable in 
some respects, presents one of the most important educa- 
tional problems in the city. None of the buildings attains 
the standard, and many are far below. Some of the older 
buildings, including Hawthorne, Garfield, Lincoln, and 
Whittier, should undergo some reconstruction or be replaced 
by modern structures. 

2. The average rating of the buildings on the Strayer 
Scale is about 73 per cent. The buildings score from 596 
to 837 on a scale of 1000 points. 

3. The locations of the schools, with the exception of 
that of the Park School, are desirable and convenient. The 
grounds meet the standard minimum for play space, but 
are entirely devoid of apparatus. It is recommended that 
standard playground equipment be supplied to all schools. 



Buildings and Grounds 219 

4. The city is to be commended on the fact that the 
school buildings have been constructed for utility and are 
consequently free from superfluous architectural features. 

5. It is recommended that living quarters other than the 
basement be provided for janitors. The erection of a small 
portable building on or near the school grounds would be 
more desirable. The walls and floors of the basements 
should be better protected from the seepage of water. 

6. The heating system should be equipped with fa- 
cilities for washing and adding moisture to the air driven 
into the schoolrooms. Intakes should be elevated, wherever 
possible, above the level of playground and street dust. 

7. Fire-protection equipment should receive immediate 
attention. Every building should be provided with a good 
fire hose for each floor and a sufficient number of hand ex- 
tinguishers. Water should be instantly obtainable by turn- 
ing on the tap at the base of each hose. All buildings should 
be equipped with metal fire escapes. Electric fire alarms, 
and connections with the city fire department, should be in- 
stalled. None of the buildings is fireproof. The older build- 
ings are especially in need of better protection. The fire 
drills are excellent and deserve commendation. 

8. Brooms, with sweeping compound, prevail as the 
method of cleaning. It would be desirable to have vacuum 
systems, and provision for such systems should be made in 
future building plans. 

9. Better electric equipment is urged, including artifi- 
cial lighting, clocks, gongs, and telephones. Every school 
should have telephone connection with the office of the 
superintendent. 

10. The number of drinking fountains should be in- 
creased and they should be distributed according to the 
number of pupils using them. Playground fountains are 
especially needed. 

11. No baths are provided in the elementary schools. It 
is recommended that showers be installed wherever prac- 
ticable. 



2 20 The Boise Survey 

12. The toilets, except in the newer buildings, are very 
unsatisfactory. It is recommended that all toilet rooms 
be provided with more light, better ventilation, and with 
non-absorbent floors and walls. The range system should 
be replaced by individual flushing systems. While the range 
system remains, it should be operative throughout the day. 
Seats should be better graded as to height. A separate 
roll of toilet paper should be provided for each seat. The 
dungeon-toilet at the Whittier School should be condemned. 

13. Blackboards of plaster or composition should be 
replaced by slate or ground glass. The height of black- 
boards should be governed by standard requirements. 

14. Approximately two thirds of the schoolrooms have 
the standard ratio (1:5) of window space to floor area. This 
is satisfactory, where it comes exclusively from the pupil's 
left, and is unobstructed, as in about one half of the rooms. 
Many classrooms are not only deficient in window area, but 
the placing of the windows renders correct lighting impos- 
sible. It is recommended that if the older buildings are to 
be retained, immediate steps be taken to reconstruct them 
so that all classrooms will have unilateral and sufficient 
lighting. It is further recommended that the present opaque 
shades be replaced by adjustable, translucent shades and 
that teachers be instructed as to their proper use. 

15. The preponderance of stationary, non-adjustable 
seats and desks makes it impossible to seat children accord- 
ing to their varying sizes. At least one third of the seats 
and desks in each room should be adjustable, and their ad- 
justment should be supervised by the school principal. 

16. Commendable use of bulletin boards was observed 
in several schools. The continuance and extension of this 
practice is recommended. 

17. The lack of special rooms prevents the development 
of newer and more efficient educational methods. It is 
recommended that future buildings be equipped with play- 
rooms, auditoriums, libraries, gymnasiums, lunch rooms, and 
modern rooms for school officials, including the school nurse. 



Buildings and Grounds 221 

18. It is evident that buildings scoring relatively low on 
the standard scale can be brought much nearer the standard 
by improvements which require little or no structural 
changes. Among these are the equipment of playgrounds, 
the improvement of basements and ventilation systems, 
better equipment for fire protection, increase in number and 
better distribution of drinking fountains, improvement of 
toilets, replacement of blackboards, and more extensive use 
of adjustable seats and desks. The improvements which 
require some structural change, including the introduction 
of baths, the reconstruction of toilet rooms and the securing 
of unilateral lighting, are, however, of no less importance. 
The cost of these improvements should not be looked upon 
as innovation expense, but the change should be viewed as 
necessities which have not received timely attention in the 
development of the school system. The present lack of 
many essentials is suggestive evidence of the lesser cost of 
a uniform educational growth in which equipment keeps pace 
with other developments. 

In the preparation of this chapter the writer has been fully 
conscious of the danger that such a section, which must of 
necessity be critical, may be misinterpreted. He has been 
reluctant to call attention to some of the long-standing de- 
fects in the physical equipment, but on the other hand he 
has been guided by the obligation to make judgments on the 
basis of generally accepted standards. Whatever local 
reasons may exist for present conditions, the efficiency of 
the plant can be fairly determined only by plain compari- 
sons with these standards. Fortunately the improvement 
of the school plant along standard lines can be brought 
about more quickly, more easily, and at less expense than 
can educational developments in other directions. It is 
believed that the adoption of the changes suggested will go 
far toward giving Boise a modern school system and one 
that will be a credit to her geographical and economic im- 
portance. 



222 The Boise Survey 

The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the 
recent publications of Dr. Fletcher B. Dresslar, of the 
United States Bureau of Education; Dr. George D. Strayer, 
of Columbia University; Dr. Lewis M. Terman, of Stanford 
University; and Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage 
Foundation. 



CHAPTER X 

THE HIGH SCHOOL 
{Proctor) 

ARTICULATION BETWEEN THE ELEMENTARY 
GRADES AND THE HIGH SCHOOL 

THERE is evidence to show that the administrative offi- 
cers of the Boise public schools are making a genuine 
effort to bridge the gap between the elementary grades and 
the high school. Among the plans that have been adopted 
with this end in view are the following: {a) Departmentali- 
zation of the 7th and 8th grades; {b) Beginning of Algebra 
and General Science in the 8th grade. Departmentalization 
accustoms the grade pupils to different teachers for different 
subjects and trains them to more independent study 
mediods. The beginning of Algebra and General Science in 
the 8th grade gives those who are planning to go to college 
an opportunity for a more varied course in the high school 
and tends to influence others to continue their education 
beyond the elementary grades. 

Table 41 gives the distribution of the graduates of the 
last seven classes graduated from the Boise 8th grade and 
includes the January and June groups for the years 191 6, 
191 7, and 19 1 8, as well as the January group for 191 9, com- 
prising a total of 758 pupils. There are 668 of the Boise 
8th grade graduates who have entered the Boise high school, 
and 4 who have entered other high schools during the 3^ 
years covered by the table. In all, 672, or 88.65 per cent, 
of the 8th grade graduates went on to high school. This is 
a surprisingly good showing when compared with the ag- 
gregate grade distribution in 386 American cities.^ Ayres 

1 Ayres, L. P., The Laggards in Our Schools, page 13, Diagram II. 

223 



224 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 41 

Giving the Distribution of the 8th-Grade Graduates of the Boise 
Schools, Comprising the January and June Classes for 35 years 





Years and Months 




What 8th-Grade 
Graduates Did 


1916 
Jan. June 


1917 
Jan, June 


1918 
Jan. June 


1919 
Jan. 


Total 


Per cent 


Went to Boise H. S. . 
Went to Other H. S. . 


97 102 


90 109 

1 I 

2 6 

2 
I . . 


80 106 

.. I 

5 12 

I I 

2 


84 

I 


668 

4 

37 

4 

5 
2 

19 

4 

2 

13 


88.12 
O.S3 88.65 


Went to Work . . . 
Stayed at Home . . 
Went to Business Col- 
lege 


3 9 
I 


4.90 
O.S3 

0.66 


Entered U. S. Navy . 
Moved Away . . . 

Married 

Poor Health 


I I 


0. 26 


3 
I 


8 
I 

I 


2 

I 


2.50 
0-53 
0. 26 


No Report 


2 7 


2 I 


I 


I. 71 


Totals 


104 128 


97 122 


87 132 


88 


758 


100.00 



found that on the basis of 1000 children who entered the 
first grade there would be found in the 8th grade 263 chil- 
dren and in the ist year high school 189, or 71.4 per cent 
of that number. Boise's record for the past 3^ years is 
17.25 per cent higher than for the 386 cities considered by 
Ayres. Less than 5 per cent of the Boise 8th grade gradu- 
ates gave up further effort to get an education and went to 
work. These facts are shown graphically in Figure 35. 

Table 42 gives the total enrollment, the average enroll- 
ment, and the per cent of the total enrollment represented 
by the average number in the high school for the ten-year 
period 1909-10 to 191 8-19. When we take an average of 
the per cents that the high school enrollment is of the total 
enrollment for the five school years 1912-13 to 191 6- 17 



The High School 



225 



inclusive, the result is an average of 25.7 per cent; for the 
two school years 191 7-1 8 and 191 8-19 (the years when 
attendance in high school was most affected by the war and 
the influenza), the result is an average of 24.1 per cent. The 
average of average per cents for the ten-year period is 23.5 
per cent. Referring again to Ayres' statistics for the 386 
American cities, we find that the total high school attendance 
is only 8.3 per cent of the total enrollment, and in the state 
of California the total average daily attendance in the high 



...s% 



TO 
BOISE HIGH SCHOOL 
dd.2% 



tSPonr /.7/ % 



Fig. 35. Showing What Became of the 8th-GRADE Graduates from the 
Boise Schools during a Period of Three and One Half Years 



226 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 42 

Showing Total Enrollment and Average Enrollment of the Boise 
Elementary and High Schools, and also the Per Cent of Total 
Average Enrollment Made up of High School Pupils for a Period 
of lo Years 





Total Gross Enrollment 


Total Average Enrollment 


Per Cent 

High 

School 

Is of Total 

Average 

Enrollment 


Year 


High 


Elemen- 
tary 


Total 


High 


Elemen- 
tary 


Total 


1909- 

1910 

1910- 

1911 

1911- 

1912 

1912- 

1913 

1913- 

1914 

1914- 

191S 

1915- 

1916 

1916- 

1917 

191 7- 

1918 

1918- 

1919 


625 

617 

778 

889 

989 

1056 

1050 

1071 

lOII 

1051 


2506 
3380 
3441 
3364 
3257 
3156 
3024 
3044 
3188 


3131 
3997 
4219 

4253 
4246 
4212 
4074 

4115 
4199 

4381 


519 
517 
667 
719 
837 
83s 
837 
806 
786 
760^ 


1913 

2548 
2661 
2690 

2359 
2482 
2370 
2326 
2435 
2433^ 


2432 
3065 
3328 
3409 
3196 

3317 
3207 

m^ 

3221 
3193 


21.3 
16.8 
20.0 
21. 1 
26.1 
25.1 
26.4 
25-7 
24.4 
23.8 



1 The average enrollment for 1918-19 is taken for the six months ending May 9, 1919. It is 
considerably below normal on account of the influenza epidemic. 

schools is only 15.6 per cent of the total average daily at- 
tendance in all the schools, elementary and high school 
combined. 

Table 43 shows how Boise compares with ten other cities 
in respect to the per cent of high school attendance in its 
relation to total attendance. Boise ranks i, with 23.8 per 
cent; Reno, Nevada, occupies the median place, with 18.1 



The High School 



227 



TABLE 43 

Showing the Relative Standing of Eleven Cities in the Percentage of 
High School Pupils in Total Average Enrollment of Elementary 
AND High School Pupils 



Name of City 



BOISE, roAHO . 

Walla Walla, Wash. 
Bellingham, Wash. 
Everett, Wash. . . 
Fargo, N. Dak. . . 
Reno, Nevada (Med. 
Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 
Albuquerque, N. M 
Trinidad, Colo. . . 
Cheyenne, Wyo. . 
Great Falls, Mont. 



Average Enrollment 



Elemen- 
tary 



2700 
3276 
3569 
2577 
1800 
3528 
2500 
2325 
1425 
4677 



High 
School 



760 

800 
888 
841 
610 
400 

735 
500 

445 
275 

785 



Total 



3193 

3500 
4164 
4410 
3187 
2200 
4263 
3000 
2770 
1700 
5462 



Per Cent 

High 

School 

Is of Total 

Enrollment 



23.8 

22.8 

21. 

19. 

19. 

18. 

17- 
16. 
16, 
16. 1 
14-3 



per cent; and Great Falls, Montana, ranks lowest, with 
14.3 per cent. Boise's very favorable position among these 
cities is shown to good effect in Figure 36. 

From Tables 41, 42, and 43, it is apparent that the Boise 
high school is attracting and holding an unusually large per 
cent of the total school population. The conclusion is there- 
fore justified that the articulation between the elementary 
schools and the high school is very satisfactory. 

A still better situation with respect to articulation would 
be brought about by the bringing together of all the 7th, 
8th, and 9th grades of the city into one building, under a dis- 
tinctively ''Intermediate School" or ''Junior High School" 
organization. This would make possible the introduction of 
adequate "prevocational" work, as well as the beginning of 
modern languages, from one to two years earlier in the 



228 



The Boise Survey 



t t 1 1 


L 


BOfser fZ/Jf/////^ . 


\A/ai 1 a wai i a w/txH ^KB^KK^ 


BeLLIN6H/HM,W/JSH. N^"" 


/r/7oan, A/oau JHI^^ 


PENO, NEV. rAftJior,) [l^M 


^tni/Yfr/i/is .c nair. JHl^H 


/3tRUai/rPQIJFtiMFX. |H^^ 


Tallyman roto P"!" 


rHFVeNNf WYO. «■■ 


eiOMTFaiLS MHNT. fBifi 


fCR CENT .6 lb 20 a'o 4o io «'o ' -yo.. oo • j^o no 



Fig. 36. Showing Relation of Enrollment in High Schools to Total 
School Enrollment in 10 Western Cities 

pupil's course of study. There may be reasons why this 
separate housing of the "Intermediate School" cannot be 
put into execution at the present time, but it is an item that 
should be included in the plan for future development of the 
Boise school system, perhaps to be worked out with the 
completion of the building now in process of erection. 



BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT 

A full discussion of the high school building and its 
equipment will be found in the chapter on ''Building and 
Equipment," but there are two points in particular to which 
attention can be called in this chapter. The laboratory for 
elementary agriculture is poorly equipped and entirely too 
small to accommodate the pupils registered in those courses. 
The gymnasium, both as to floor space and apparatus, is not 
up to the standard for a high school of 1000 pupils. It may 
be necessary to wait for adequate gymnasium facilities until 
the central portion connecting the two new wings of the 
present building is erected, but proper provision should be 
made as soon as possible for laboratory and recitation rooms 
for the elementary courses in agriculture. 



The High School 229 

THE HIGH SCHOOL FACULTY 

Details as to training, tenure, salaries, etc., of the high 
school teachers have been discussed in the foregoing chap- 
ter on "Teaching Staff." As to teaching technique and 
methods, it is not possible to give in this report a detailed 
account covering each individual instructor. The classrooms 
of most of the members of the high school teaching staff 
were visited by members of the survey commission. All 
grades of teaching ability were found, but taken as a whole 
the teaching staff of the Boise high school was found to be 
well up to the standards set for high schools of from 800 to 
1200 pupils. Unfortunately for the high school, four of the 
very best teachers found by the surveyors will not be with 
the school another year. Two were planning graduate work 
at universities, and two were taken from the high school by 
business corporations which appreciated their ability suffi- 
ciently to pay them adequate salaries for their services. The 
loss of these four experienced teachers cannot help lowering 
the efficiency and morale of the high school for some time to 
come.^ The regrettable part of the matter is that two of 
them could have been retained if they had been assured of 
reasonable increases in salary early in the spring. 

CURRICULUM FEATURES 

In the organization and administration of its curriculum 
the Boise high school enjoys the advantage of being free 
from outside dictation or domination. The fact that the 
district is absolutely independent makes it possible for 
the Board of Directors to authorize any course of study that 
may be submitted by its administrative officers, without 
having to take into account state or county educational re- 
quirements. This means that if the curriculum adopted does 
not meet the needs of Boise and vicinity, the responsibility 
rests upon the board and its educational advisers. It also 
means that any adjustments necessary to be made in order 
1 See Figure 8, with accompanying comments on this subject. 



230 The Boise Survey 

to bring the courses of study up to the best standards for 
secondary education in a progressive American community 
can be made by authority of the Board of Education di- 
rectly, without awaiting the approval of outside agencies. 
It will be the purpose of the following discussion of the 
curriculum of the Boise high school to indicate to what 
extent the curriculum as at present constituted meets the 
needs of Boise and conforms to accepted standards of cur- 
riculum making for secondary schools in American cities, 
as well as to make constructive suggestions for the improve- 
ment of any defects that may be apparent. 

/. The Working Out of the Curriculum 

The ^'Statement of Courses" which has recently been 
recommended to the board for publication was worked out 
by the teaching staff of the high school as a cooperative 
enterprise. All the instructors in a given department were 
constituted members of a committee to agree upon the type 
of the courses that should be offered and to formulate a 
statement of the aims, content, and method of presenting 
the courses. The high school principal was an ex-officio 
member of each committee. Whenever a committee had 
arrived at an agreement, report was made to the entire 
teaching staff at the regular teachers' meetings. Thus, not 
only did each departmental group face directly the problem 
involved in curriculum building, but all groups were required 
to square their final reports with the general aim and pur- 
pose of the course of study as a whole. 

The ^'Statement of Courses" evolved under the plan just 
described is a social product. Every teacher who had a 
part in working out the details was educated into a new 
sense of responsibility for the successful operation of the 
courses of study as therein outlined. The high school prin- 
cipal might have worked out the course of study alone, sub- 
mitting it in its finished form for the approval of the teach- 
ing staff. In such an event the resulting course of study 



^ 



The High School 231 

might more nearly have approximated the ideal, but there 
would have been a distinct loss to the morale and teaching 
efficiency of the high school instructors. The Boise high 
school plan of curriculum making deserves, therefore, com- 
mendation as being in line with the best tenets in school 
administration. 

2, Curriculum Content 

As stated in Chapter XI, on ^'Educational and Vocational 
Guidance," the aim of the courses of study in intermediate 
and high schools should be to give preparation (a) for 
citizenship in a democracy; {b) for vocation or ability to 
make a worthy contribution to the world's work; {c) for 
avocation, or the socially profitable employment of leisure 
time. 

The courses offered in the Boise high school that come 
under "a'' (citizenship) are those in History and General 
Social Science. Judging from the work of classes which 
were visited, it is evident that full advantage of the situation 
of Boise as capital of the state and county seat of Ada 
County is not taken by the teachers. There is need for a 
great deal more "laboratory" work in a city which is itself 
the best possible type of citizenship laboratory. 

Another source of citizenship training which is not being 
adequately cultivated is to be found in connection with the 
various student activities. The high school, for the time 
being, is the pupil's world, in which he is in the truest sense 
a citizen. Every phase of the school life, whether in the 
classroom or in extra-curricula activities, should be so or- 
ganized as to develop high ideals of social and civic conduct, 
and also to give opportunity for participation in social and 
political situations requiring the application of principles 
learned in the classroom. The History courses are sup- 
posed to furnish a background for the understanding of 
present-day problems. As at present outlined too much 
time is given to Ancient and Mediaeval History, and no place 
is provided for elementary Economics. The introduction of 



232 The Boise Survey 

two courses in Economics, even at the expense of all the time 
now given to Ancient and Mediaeval History, would give a 
better-balanced course in the Social Sciences. 

The courses offered that would naturally come under "b" 
(vocational) are: Agriculture, Manual Training, Mechani- 
cal Drawing, Home Economics, and the Commercial sub- 
jects. Of these the course in Agriculture is distinctly 
vocational, coming under the Smith-Hughes Act. The high 
school owns a 40-acre farm, with complete equipment of 
buildings, stock, and farm machinery. The students are 
required to devote one half their time to classwork and one 
half to experimental work on the school farm. During the 
summer vacations the work of the school farm is carried on 
by students who are paid at the current wages for their 
services. The farm director and teacher of Agriculture has 
had excellent training, both in practical farming and scien- 
tific agriculture, and he is carrying on lines of experimenta- 
tion that will be of greatest service to the farmers in the 
region around Boise. 

There appears to be commendable coordination between 
the courses in Agriculture, Manual Training, and Mechani- 
cal Drawing. Plans for new buildings needed on the farm 
are drawn by the Mechanical Drawing department, and 
much of the work is performed and furniture made by the 
Manual Training department. Plans for a machine shop 
to house the work in auto-mechanics were being perfected 
by the advanced class in mechanical and architectural draw- 
ing when the members of the survey staff inspected this 
phase of the work. The Home Economics department did 
all of the purchasing and prepared all the food for the high 
school cafeteria, in addition to offering the customary 
courses. Wholesome, well-prepared food was thus supplied 
to the high school pupils at a very low cost. The head of 
this department made such a success of her work that a 
Boise department store secured her services at a good salary 
to manage the lunchroom of its Women's Department. 

The work of the Commercial department seemed to be 



The High School 233 

carried on in an efficient way so far as the teaching of the 
separate subjects themselves was concerned, but there was 
not the coordination between the work of this department 
and other departments that there should be. Some use of 
the students in typing and shorthand was made by the 
superintendent of schools and the high school principal; but 
much more could be done to give all the pupils in the Com- 
mercial department experience in handling real accounts, 
keeping up office files, etc., if the bookkeeping of the Agri- 
cultural and Home Economics departments and that of 
certain student enterprises could be turned over to them 
under the supervision of the head of the department. 

The fact that 63, or more than one half, of the girls who 
are planning to be stenographers intend to complete their 
training in a business college is evidence that the Com- 
mercial department is not furnishing them with a suffi- 
ciently practical type of experience to meet the demands of 
Boise business men. The work in auto-mechanics was well 
organized and carried on as efficiently as could be expected 
in the building used. The floor space was adequate, but the 
lighting and ventilation were wretched. Seeing that this is 
the ''automobile age," no more acceptable service to the 
community can be performed than that undertaken in the 
day and evening auto-mechanics classes of the Boise high 
school. The Board of Education can well afford to furnish 
all necessary buildings and equipment. 

The subjects which may be classified under "c" (avoca- 
tion) are: Art, Expression, Music, and the Foreign Lan- 
guages. It is true that for particularly gifted persons any 
one of the avocational subjects may become vocational. For 
the great majority of high school pupils their chief value lies 
in the fact that they contribute to the enlargement of one's 
capacity for enjoyment of leisure time. There should be 
opportunity for the pupils highly endowed along the lines 
of Art, Expression, or Music to receive sufficiently advanced 
courses to enable them to go on from high school to special 
schools for the completion of their training, but there is 



234 ^^^ Boise Survey 

greater need that all pupils who enter a high school shall 
receive a type of training that will develop their ability to 
appreciate and enjoy the masterpieces of Art, Literature, 
and Music. 

Both of these aims can be accomplished in the Boise high 
school. At present the tendency seems to be to neglect the 
aim which would seek to cultivate in every pupil a spirit of 
amateur interest in and appreciation of the world's highest 
achievements in the line of artistic endeavor. 

In addition to the subjects which may be said to bear di- 
rectly upon the three principal aims of secondary education, 
there are those of English, Mathematics, and Science, which 
may be said to be basic in character. Eight courses in Eng- 
lish, eight courses in Mathematics, and eight courses in 
Natural Science are offered, making it possible for a pupil 
to earn four units of credit in any one of these departments. 
Aims, content of courses, and methods of presentation in 
these three departments were found to be very satisfactory. 

J. Administration of the Curriculum 

Selection of courses by pupils in the Boise high school has, 
for the past few years, been entirely elective. Limited only 
by the necessity of taking certain courses in sequence, an/ 
the meeting of prerequisite requirements before other courses 
could be had, pupils were free to make out their own cur- 
ricula. A new policy of requiring three majors of three units 
each, one of which shall be English, was to be inaugurated 
during the school year 1919-20. 

The results of the system of free election on the choice of 
subjects by the pupils during the five semesters beginning 
September, 191 7, is shown in Table 44. The percentages of 
pupils taking the subjects, arranged according to the di- 
visions suggested in the preceding section, are as follows: 
Basic group: English, 20.8 per cent; Mathematics, ii.o 
per cent; Science, 6.6 per cent; total basic group, 38.4 per 
cent. Avocational group: Art, 2.5 per cent; Expression, 3.6 



The High School 



235 



TABLE 44 

Showing Number of Pupils Taking Various Subjects for Five Semesters 
AND THE Per Cent That the Number Taking Each Subject Is of the 
Total Number of Elections 



Subjects 



English .... 
Math, ist yr. 
Math. 2d yr. . . 
Gen. Science . . 
Bot. and Zool. . 
Phys. and Chem. 



Latin . . . 
German . . 
Fr. and Span. 
Art ... . 

Expression . 
Music . . . 



Agriculture . 
Man. Train. 
Mech. Dr. . 
Home. Econ. 
Typing . . 
Shorthand . 
Bk. and Acct. 



Gen. Soc. Sci. 
History . . 



Grand Total 



1917 



ist 
Sem. 



685 

166 

210 

21 

139 
89 
225 
109 
102 

6S 
130 

25 
114 
105 

49 
258 

74 

63 
228 

o 
416 



2d 

Sem. 



650 
128 
204 
o 
138 

74 
286 
ISO 
100 

56 
120 

38 

93 
50 
45 
239 
62 

54 
186 

30 
342 



1918 



ist 
Sem. 



627 

153 

173 

16 

96 

86 

198 

72 

152 

76 

126 

39 

74 

58 

48 

246 

133 

53 

127 

76 
314 



2d 

Sem. 



588 

no 

179 

o 

105 
71 

208 

38 

230 
"5 
113 
25 
102 

65 

62 
260 
141 

55 
149 
108 
283 



1919 



ist 
Sem. 



721 
187 
233 

o 
117 
133 
199 

o 

346 

78 

100 

6 

62 

69 

93 

243 

192 

86 

183 

135 

255 



Total of 
SSem'rs 



3271 
744 
999 
37 
595 
453 

1116 
369 
930 
390 
589 
133 
445 
347 
297 

1246 
602 
311 

^n 

349 
1710 



15,806 



Per Cent that 

Total for 

Each Subject 

Is of Grand 

Total 



20.8 
4.7 
6.3 
0.2 

3-7 
2.7 



38.4 



7.0 
2.4 
6.0 
2-5 
3-6 
0.8 



22.3 



2.8 
2.2 
1.9 
8.0 
3.8 
2.0 



5-5 


26.2 


2.3 
10.8 


131 



» General Science is now taught entirely in the intennediate school. 

per cent; Music, 0.8 per cent; Foreign Languages, 15.4 per 
cent ; total avocational group, 22.3. Vocational group : Agri- 
culture, 2.8 per cent; Manual Training, 2.2 per cent; Me- 
chanical Drawing, 1.9 per cent; Home Economics, 8.0 per 
cent; Commercial subjects, 11.3 per cent; Total vocational 



236 The Boise Survey 

group, 26.2 per cent. Citizenship group: General Social 
Science, 2.3 per cent; History, 10.8 per cent; total citizen- 
ship group, 1 3. 1 per cent. 

The plan of major groups should be so directed as to 
bring about an equalization of the percentages of pupils 
found taking courses in the four main divisions. Many who 
are now taking Mathematics should be encouraged to take 
courses in Science instead. In the Avocational group, for- 
eign languages claim a disproportionate percentage of the 
pupils. It is doubtful whether one in ten of those who take 
a foreign language in our high schools ever acquires a suffi- 
cient mastery of it to serve either as a vocational asset or as 
a means of enjoying the literature for which that language 
is the medium of expression. Considering the doubtful value 
of foreign language study for the great majority of high 
school pupils and the immediate returns that may be had 
through the proper development of various lines of artistic 
expression and appreciation, a consistent effort should be 
made to attract more pupils to the Art, Music, and Expres- 
sion courses. 

In the Vocational group there is a great contrast between 
the percentage of pupils who have elected the Commercial 
subjects and those who have elected Agriculture. Four 
times as many have taken up Commercial work as have been 
enrolled in Agriculture, notwithstanding the fact that the 
Boise high school has one of the very best courses in Agri- 
culture offered by any high school in the West. As shown 
in the chapter on "Educational and Vocational Guidance," 
Agriculture will absorb 32.0 per cent of the gainful workers, 
while clerical occupations will demand the services of only 
4.6 per cent. The world needs scientifically trained farmers. 
The Boise high school has the equipment for training many 
more than are now taking the courses. The conclusion is 
obvious. Means should be devised for directing more boys 
and girls into this important field. 

In connection with the Citizenship courses it is desirable 
that more attention should be paid to the study of Elemen- 



The High School 237 

tary Economics. This could be done by telescoping certain 
History courses and making more room for the study of 
present-day social and political problems. 

While the subject of Physical education is not mentioned 
in the "Statement of Courses" and statistics regarding it 
were not contained in the data from which Table 44 was 
compiled, the Boise high school does pay attention to the 
physical well-being of its pupils. Military training is pro- 
vided under the direction of an army officer detailed by the 
War Department for that service, and a physical director 
has charge of the gymnasium classes and athletic games. 
Physical examinations are made the basis of work in cor- 
rective gymnastics, and a system of simple tests has been 
employed to discover those who need particular attention. 
The aim of the director is to secure the participation of every 
pupil in some form of healthful physical activity, but he is 
handicapped by the lack of gymnasium facilities. 

CERTAIN PHASES OF THE INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION 

J. The High School Principal 

The principal of the Boise high school is given practically 
a free hand in the management of the internal affairs of the 
high school. This is as it should be. The high school prin- 
cipal should be an expert in secondary education, with the 
training, personality, and executive ability to handle the 
problems of his office, and should then be held responsible 
for results. It ought to be possible for the principal so to 
organize his time as to give a certain amount of attention 
to the supervision of instruction and to the coordinating of 
the work of the different departments in order that each may 
make its proper contribution to the announced aim of the 
whole school. The members of the survey staff are of 
the opinion that the high school principal is too much bur- 
dened with petty details of office accounting. As one illus- 
tration his office was keeping all the accounts of the cafe- 
teria, and in the absence of competent help the principal 



238 The Boise Survey 

himself was doing the bookkeeping and checking over. This 
work should be turned over to the bookkeeping section of 
the Commercial department, and other student help should 
be furnished to care for registration and daily routine ac- 
counting under the management of a competent principal's 
secretary. The Board of Education cannot afford to pay 
a principal's salary for a bookkeeper's services. A high 
school with from 800 to 1000 pupils in attendance needs all 
of a principal's time and attention and ought to have it ap- 
plied where it will result in the establishment and main- 
tenance of the highest standards of excellence in all depart- 
ments of high school work. 

2. Scholarship and Grading 

In giving marks indicative of scholastic attainment, the 
teachers of the Boise high school are expected to plot the 
curve of marks given by them at the end of each six weeks 
of school work and also at the end of each semester. If 
there is any great variation in the curve representing the 
marks which a given teacher may award and the normal 
curve of distribution for the entire school, the teacher must 
see the principal and justify his deviation from the ''norm." 
Table 45 shows the results of this plan on the distribu- 
tion of marks given during five semesters, covering the 
school years 191 7-1 8, 191 8-1 9, and the first semester, 191 9. 

A glance at the percentage of marks of each degree given 
for each subject will show that the adoption of this plan 
has resulted in a relatively uniform distribution of marks in 
each subject, so that a ''i+," a "i," a "2," etc., means 
approximately the same thing in each department and to 
each teacher. The relatively small per cents (3.4 and 3.3) 
found in the "conditioned" and "failed" columns of Table 45 
are accounted for by the 9.0 per cent in the "dropped" 
column. That 1407 pupils should have been permitted to 
drop courses during 2 J years indicates that proper care and 
guidance were not exercised in admitting pupils to courses. 



The High School 



239 



TABLE 45 

Showing Percentage of Marks of Each Degree Given in All Subjects 
IN Boise High School from September, 191 7, to February, 19 19 





Marks 




Subject 


















Tot. 




1+ 


I 


2 


3 


4 


Cond. 


5 


Dropped 




English . . 


3-3> 


14.0 


28.6 


28.4 


II. 4 


1.9 


2.9 


9.5 


100. 


Soc. Sci. . . 


1-3 


12.0 


23.0 


30.3 


12.0 


1.2 


7.0 


13.2 


« 


History . . 


30 


150 


26.0 


29.7 


10.8 


5-0 


2.0 


8.5 


(( 


Math. Adv. 


2.4 


16. s 


27.1 


251 


137 


1.9 


5-5 


7.8 


(< 


Math. I yr. 


2.8 


16.4 


25.8 


25.2 


2.4 


1.4 


30 


12.0 


it 


Gen. Sci. . 


2.7 


27.0 


19-3 


32.5 


50 


0.0 


135 


0.0 


<< 


Phys. and 




















Ch. . . . 


2.1 


17-3 


30.3 


29.2 


7.0 


4-8 


1-5 


7.8 


it 


Biology . . 


1.6 


12.3 


27.0 


32.0 


18.0 


1-5 


2.1 


5-5 


it 


Latin . . . 


6.5 


131 


255 


26.8 


12.4 


41 


5-6 


6.0 


it 


German . . 


6.0 


18.3 


27.4 


21.2 


7-4 


2.2 


4.2 


133 


" 


Fr. and 




















Span. . . 


6.5 


17.8 


25.0 


21.3 


9.8 


31 


5-5 


II. 


it 


Agriculture. 


2-3 


12.0 


34- S 


24.4 


12.0 


0.9 


5-0 


9.0 


it 


Man. Tr. . 


2.0 


14.2 


24.0 


28.0 


4.0 


2.8 


5.0 


10. 


it 


Mech. Dr. . 


3-2 


14.0 


22.0 


25-5 


12.0 


4.8 


3-5 


150 


a 


Home Econ. 


2.7 


18.3 


28.7 


28.5 


II. 


2-3 


1.2 


7-3 


ii 


Typmg . . 


50 


22.0 


18. 5 


20.5 


13-5 


7.0 


3-5 


10. 


if 


Shorthand . 


2.0 


17.0 


25-5 


26. 5 


14.0 


30 


4.0 


8.0 


it 


Bookkeep'g. 


1.2 


13-2 


25.0 


23.0 


9-5 


13.0 


6.5 


8.6 


it 


Art ... . 


0.9 


15.0 


28.0 


36.0 


8.0 


S-i 


I.O 


6.0 


it 


Express'n . 


I. I 


14.0 


33-5 


30.0 


6.4 


6.5 


I.O 


7-5 


ii 


Music . . 


2>Z 


15.0 


330 


30.3 


10.4 


2>-S 


4.0 


0.7 


" 


Per Cent of 




















Total . . 


31 


15-7 


27.0 


27.2 


"•3 


3-4 


2>Z 


9.0 


100% 


No. Cases . 


488 


2473 


4268 


4300 


1780 


556 


534 


1407 





Total number of cases receiving marks or being dropped from class, 15,806 



240 The Boise Survey 

Simple preliminary tests should be devised to assist teachers 
in selecting the pupils who will be very likely to fail if per- 
mitted to undertake their courses in order that they may be 
directed into courses where they will stand a chance to suc- 
ceed. If carefully safeguarded against becoming mechanical, 
the marking system of the Boise high school can be com- 
mended as a distinct advance over the ordinary "hit or miss" 
plan in vogue in the average high school. 

J. Supervised Study 

The time schedule of the Boise high school calls for five 
periods of one hour each, three in the morning and two in 
the afternoon. The afternoon session does not begin until 
1.55, which gives opportunity for certain phases of the 
physical education program to be carried out between 1.15 
and 1.55 o'clock. There is a 5-minute intermission between 
class periods, but this is so arranged as to leave a full 60 
minutes for each class exercise. This 60 minutes is sup- 
posed to be divided into a recitation period of 30 minutes 
and a supervised study period of 30 minutes. There is no 
warning signal to indicate that the 30 minutes for recitation 
has expired. The teachers are left to determine for them- 
selves the amount of time to be given each day to super- 
vised study. 

The result of this arrangement is that in most cases the 
entire 60 minutes is taken up with recitation and discussion 
and no time is left for supervised study. If the supervised 
study period is to be retained, there should be some means 
of providing for the carrying out of a more satisfactory 
division of time between recitation and study period. 

4. The Advisory System 

Thirty-three of the thirty-four classroom teachers in the 
Boise high school act as "advisers" to groups of pupils vary- 
ing in size from 16 to 34. The pupils belonging to a given 
"advisory" assemble in the room of their adviser 20 minutes 



The High School 241 

before the time for the first regular period in the morning 
and 20 minutes before the first period in the afternoon. 
During this time the roll is taken, special announcements 
for the day are made, and the remainder of the time is sup- 
posed to be occupied by the adviser in giving special counsel 
and help to the pupils of his group, particularly those who 
are reported as doing poor work in their classes. The ad- 
viser keeps not only the attendance record but the scholar- 
ship record as well. The first reports of scholarship 
deficiencies are made to the adviser, who confers with the 
pupil and the classroom teacher with a view to aiding the 
pupil in making up his work. No teacher is permitted to 
give a pupil a failing mark in a course, unless he has previ- 
ously notified the pupil's adviser of the character of the work 
being done. This notice must be given in time to enable the 
adviser to be of real service to the pupil in overcoming his 
difficulty. 

The idea behind the advisory system is a very good one, 
and a great many of the teachers are utilizing the two 20- 
minute periods per day to good advantage; but there are a 
number of the teachers who permit extreme disorder to reign 
as soon as the roll is taken and the announcements made. 
It is a serious question whether it would not be better to 
devote 5 minutes to roll taking and announcements, morning 
and afternoon, and either add 5 minutes to each period, 
making them 65 minutes long, so that 40 minutes could be 
devoted to recitation and 25 minutes to making a start on 
the preparation of the next day's lesson under the super- 
vision of the teacher, or shorten the school day 30 minutes. 
The advisory system could also be utilized to advantage in 
connection with a systematic organization of the work in 
educational and vocational guidance. As administered in 
191 8-1 9, it did not justify the 40 minutes allotted to it. 

THE NEED FOR A JUNIOR COLLEGE IN BOISE 

The establishment of a junior college would give Boise a 
more completely articulated educational system. The argu- 



242 



The Boise Survey 



ments in favor of adding two years of college work to the 
present four-year high school course are, briefly stated, as 
follows : 

1 . The young people of Boise are under the necessity of 
traveling great distances when going to institutions of higher 
learning. The nearest college of standard grade is located 
at Walla Walla, 315 miles north and west. In order to reach 
the University of Idaho it is necessary to pass through parts 
of Oregon and Washington and to make a 465-mile journey. 
The University of Montana is 648 miles north, while the 
University of Washington is 676 miles northwest and the 
University of Oregon is 492 miles west. 

2. An institution of collegiate rank in or near a com- 
munity tends to influence many young people to continue 
their education beyond the high school, who otherwise 
would not do so. This idea is supported by the data pre- 
sented in Table 46. 

TABLE 46 

Showing Percentage of High School Pupils Going on to College 
FROM Boise, Everett, Palo Alto, and Walla Walla 



Year 



Cities 



Boise 



Everett 



Walla Walla 



Palo Alto 



1914 

1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 



Average Per Cent 



19.0 

25.2 

25-5 
21.0 
22.3 



22.7 



30.0 
59 '^ 
44 
22 
26 



36.6 



47.0 
61. 2 
66.0 
67.6 
63.2 



62.7 



69- 3 
60.4 

75-9 
61.0 

72. 5 



66.0 



Everett has one year of junior college work. The per- 
centage of Everett high school pupils who continue their 



The High School 243 

education is 36.6, and of this group one half remain for the 
one year of work offered in the home high school. The 
Palo Alto high school sends 66.0 per cent of its graduates on 
to college. Stanford University is located within one mile of 
the Palo Alto union high school. 

The most telling comparison with the Boise high school, 
however, is that of the Walla Walla high school. Walla 
Walla has about the same population as Boise, and has very 
much the same natural surroundings. The two high schools 
are of nearly the same size and graduate about the same 
number of pupils each year. From Boise 23 and from 
Walla Walla 63 out of every 100 high school graduates go 
on to college. The fact that Whitman College is located in 
Walla Walla undoubtedly accounts for most of this very 
striking difference. 

A junior college in Boise would doubtless mean that 45 
out of every 100 graduates of the high school would con- 
tinue their education, and that at least one half of them 
would remain in the local school for one or two years of 
work. 

3. Educationally considered, the junior college is ad- 
visable because it serves to complete the cycle of secondary 
education. It is estimated that from 40 to 60 per cent of 
the subjects pursued during the first two years in American 
colleges and universities is of secondary grade. These sub- 
jects are frequently taught by instructors whose training is 
not the equal of the best high school teachers. The sections 
are too large to permit individual instruction. In the junior 
colleges the classes are relatively small, individual instruc- 
tion is possible, and better results may be secured. 

A two years' extension of the present high school course of 
study would make it possible to offer additional courses in 
Agriculture, Commerce, and Social Science that would 
function more completely in the economic, social, and civic 
life of the community. The graduates of the junior college 
who went up to the universities would be ready to enter the 
professional and advanced courses, where they would come 



244 ^^^ Boise Survey 

Sit once into contact with the strongest men on the university 
staff. 

4. It is socially and morally desirable for adolescents to 
remain under home guidance and supervision as long as 
possible. In a great university enrolling 10,000 students, 
approximately 6500 of them will be in the freshman and 
sophomore years. Adequate supervision of such a group 
in a large city is practically impossible. The result usually 
is that there is a very heavy percentage of elimination at the 
end of the freshman year, due to failure in college work. If 
the first two years of college life were spent in junior col- 
leges, those who went on to the universities would be more 
mature, more settled as to life purposes, and more capable 
of meeting university standards of conduct and scholarship. 

5. Not only would a junior college promote the social, 
moral, and educational welfare of Boise's young men and 
women, but it would be a distinct economic asset to the 
city as well. Graduates of neighboring high schools would 
be attracted to Boise for one or two years of college work, 
and many of those who now leave Boise to attend college 
would remain at home until the courses offered in the 
Boise junior college had been completed. The money spent 
in support of these young people would aggregate a goodly 
sum that would find its way every year into Boise business 
channels. The reputation of the city as an educational 
center would be enhanced and many families would thereby 
be influenced to make Boise their home. 

6. The cost of establishing a junior college would not be 
prohibitive. The present high school facilities, with appro- 
priate additions to library and scientific laboratory equip- 
ment, would meet the needs of the junior college. By mak- 
ing the selection of future high school instructors with the 
work of the junior college in mind, men and women could 
be secured with the requisite training to give the college 
courses in an acceptable manner. To introduce the first 
year of the junior college course would probably not require 
more than three teachers in addition to the present high 
school staff. 



The High School 245 

It has been found in California, where the junior college 
movement has attained its highest development, that the 
cost per pupil of junior college work is from $125 to $250 
per year. Accredited junior colleges are affiliated with the 
University of California, and their graduates receive junior 
standing at that institution and at Leland Stanford Junior 
University. A plan of affiliation between the Boise junior 
college and the University of Idaho could undoubtedly be 
worked out to the advantage of all concerned. 

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. The articulation between the Boise high school and 
the elementary schools of the city is very satisfactory, as 
shown by the percentage of 8th grade graduates going on 
to the high school, and also by the relationship between the 
total average enrollment in the high school and the total 
average enrollment in all schools. This articulation could 
be improved by a distinct junior high school organization 
housed in a building by itself. 

2. Gymnasium equipment and elementary agricultural 
laboratory equipment are inadequate. 

3. The loss of several most competent teachers might 
have been prevented by judicious salary increases. 

4. The working out of the ''Statement of Courses" was 
found to have been a social enterprise in which the entire 
teaching staff was enlisted. The result is a well-balanced 
modern course of study designed to carry out the fundamen- 
tal aims of American secondary education. Certain sugges- 
tions for administering the course of study were made in 
the light of the percentage of pupils electing various high 
school subjects during the preceding five semesters. 

5. As to internal administration: 

(fl) The high school principal should be given sufficient 
clerical assistance to enable him to devote more time to 
supervision of teaching and carrying out the larger edu- 
cational policies of the high school. 



246 The Boise Survey 

(b) The plan of standardized values in grading for qual- 
ity of work is commended, but attention is called to 
the unusual number of students who are permitted to 
drop courses. More carefully organized educational 
guidance would tend to eliminate this defect. 

(c) Supervised study is not administered to the best ad- 
vantage. Teachers disregard study periods. Warning 
signals are needed, as well as closer supervision by 
principal of teachers' methods of utilizing study 
periods. 

(d) The advisory system is not functioning as it might. 
Too much time is now wasted. This could be made an 
effective means of carrying out a systematic plan of edu- 
cational and vocational guidance. 

6. The establishment of a junior college would round out 
Boise's educational system, afford opportunity for many 
more young people to have collegiate advantages, and be a 
social, economic, and educational asset to the city. 



m 



CHAPTER XI 
EDUCATIONAL AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

{Proctor) 

THE NEED FOR EDUCATIONAL AND VOCATIONAL 
GUIDANCE IN BOISE 

IT should be the purpose of the public schools of any 
community to prepare the boys and girls of that com- 
munity for the places they are to occupy as men and women. 
In general that preparation should be threefold; i.e., for 
participation in the duties of citizenship, for earning a liveli- 
hood, and for the proper use of leisure time. 

There is evidence that the Boise schools are endeavoring 
to perform the second of these functions, — preparation for 
earning a livelihood. Courses are offered in agriculture, 
wood- working, auto-mechanics, mechanical drawing, etc., 
in addition to the courses that lead to college entrance and 
preparation for a professional career. But there is no in- 
dication that anything is being done to guide the boys and 
girls of the Boise schools in the selection of their respective 
vocations. There are no ^'Life-career'^ classes in which in- 
formation is given regarding the vocational opportunities of 
Boise and vicinity, nor is there any systematic effort made 
to discover and record the vocational capabilities and in- 
terests of the pupils as a first step in advising them regarding 
the occupation in which they would be most likely to suc- 
ceed. There can be no doubt that the lack of systematic 
educational and vocational guidance results in serious mis- 
application of effort in school work, as well as in many mis- 
fits in vocations. 

J. Occupational Opportunities, Occupations of Fathers, 
and Occupational Ambitions of Children 

The relation between the occupational opportunities of 
Boise and vicinity, as shown by the 13th United States 

247 



248 The Boise Survey 

Census, and the occupations of the fathers of Boise school 
children and the vocational ambitions expressed by Boise 
high school pupils, is brought out in Tables 47, 48, and 49. 
These data are supplemented by other information obtained 
from the pupils regarding their reasons for choosing the oc- 
cupation mentioned, their courses of study and their edu- 
cational plans after completing high school. The high school 
pupils who filled out the questionnaire relating to vocational 
matters numbered 749. The vocational ambitions of the 
grade pupils were not ascertained, but at the time of giving 
the spelling test one of the items of information obtained 
was in regard to the occupation of the father or bread- 
winner of the family. There were 1705 grade children, from 
the 3d to the 8th grade inclusive, who took the spelling test. 
Thus there were 2454 Boise school children who gave in- 
formation regarding the occupational status of the homes 
from which they come. 

The occupational designations used in the following tables 
are those found in the report of the Thirteenth United States 
Census (1910), Vol. IV, page 40. Table 47 shows the 
occupational distribution of the homes from which the chil- 
dren from the 3d to 12 th grades, inclusive, come. For the 
purposes of this survey, the Census designations "Trade" 
and ''Clerical" are combined under the heading "Com- 
mercial." 

Since the occupation of the father or bread-winner is a 
reasonably accurate index of the social status of the home 
from which the child comes, high school and grade pupils 
have been separated in this table in order to see whether 
there is any marked difference in the social status of the 
homes from which grade and high school pupils come. This 
contrast will appear in a more marked degree in Table 48, 
where the occupations of the fathers have been assigned to 
ranks based on preparation and ability necessary for success. 

The data set forth in Table 47 show clearly the occupa- 
tional trends in Boise. It is true that not all the people of 
Boise have children in the public schools, but those who do 



Educational and Vocational Guidance 249 

TABLE 47 

Giving the Distribution of the Pupils of the Boise Schools from the 
3D to the I2TH Grades, Inclusive, According to Occupation of Father 
OR Bread-winner 





Numbers 




Per Cents 




Occupations, 












General 


Grade 


High 


Total 


Grade 


High 


Total 


Divisions 


Pupils 


School 
Pupils 




Pupils 


School 
Pupils 




Agriculture . . . 


233 


188 


421 


13-66 


25.20 


17.20 


Commercial . . . 


396 


183 


579 


23-33 


24.40 


23.60 


Mfg. and Mechani- 














cal 


511 


177 


688 


29.65 


23-30 


28.00 


Transportation . . 


69 


24 


93 


4-13 


2>-2>o 


3-90 


Public Service . . 


83 


31 


114 


4-85 


4.20 


4-50 


Professional . . . 


163 


8S 


248 


9-56 


11,40 


10.10 


Extraction of Min- 














erals 


28 


8 


36 


1.74 


1. 10 


1.50 


Domestic Service . 


25 


2 


27 


1-55 


-30 


1. 10 


Common Labor . 


117 


6 


123 


6.78 


.80 


5.00 


Retired, Father 














Dead, or No Oc- 














cupation Given . 


80 


45 


125 


4-75 


6.00 


5-10 


Totals 


1 70s 


749 


2454 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 



are thoroughly representative of the general population. 
Agriculture, Commercial, Manufacturing, and Mechanical 
and Professional occupations absorb 78.9 per cent of the 
fathers of the Boise school children, 5.0 per cent are en- 
gaged in common labor, 5.10 per cent of the children come 
from homes where the father is dead or no occupation was 
given, which leaves only ii.o per cent engaged in extraction 
of minerals, transportation, public service, and domestic 
service. 



250 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 48 

Comparing the Percentage of People Engaged in the Various Oc- 
cupational Divisions, in the United States as a Whole, in the 
Pacific and Mountain Divisions, and in Boise, as Shown by 
Occupations of Fathers of School Pupils 



Occupations, 
General Divisions 



Per Cents Engaged by Districts 



United 
States 



Pacific 
Division 



Mountain 
Division 



Boise 



Agriculture .... 
Extraction of Mineral 
Mfg. and Mechanical 
Transportation . . . 
Commercial .... 
Public Service . . . 
Professional .... 
Domestic Service . . 



2-5 

27.9 
6.9 

14. 1 
I. 2 

4-4 
9.9 



22.6 

2.4 

27.2 

10.3 

18. 1 

2.0 

6.0 

II-3 



17.20 

1.50 
28.00 

390 
23.60 

4.50 
10. 10 

1. 10 



How Boise compares in the occupational distribution of 
its citizens with the rest of the United States, with the 
Pacific Coast States and the Mountain States, is set forth 
in Table 48. Boise appears to have a larger proportion of 
its gainful workers in Manufacturing and Mechanical, Com- 
mercial, Professional, and Public Service occupations than 
either the Pacific Division, the Mountain Division, or the 
United States as a whole. On the other hand it has fewer 
representatives engaged in extraction of minerals, trans- 
portation, domestic service, or agriculture than the other 
sections mentioned. 

The relatively high percentage of children coming from 
homes where the father is engaged in agriculture is explain- 
able on the ground that Boise is the center of an extensive 
agricultural region. Professional workers and those en- 
gaged in public service are more numerous in Boise than in 
the average community because it is the state capital of 
Idaho and the county seat of Ada County. 



Educational and Vocational Guidance 251 



TABLE 49 

Comparing Occupational Choices of 749 Boise High School Pupils, 
Distributed under the Designations Employed in the 13TH United 
States Census (1910), with the Occupations of the Fathers or 
Bread-winners in the Homes from which the Pupils Come 



Occupational 
Designations 


Occupational Choices of High 
School Pupils 


Occupations 

Engaged in by 

Fathers 




Numbers 


Per Cent 


Number 


















Per Cent 




Boys 


Girls 


Total 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 






Agriculture . . . . 
Extraction of Miner- 


52 





52 


17.0 


0.0 


6.7 


188 


25.2 


als 











0.0 


0.0 


0.0 


8 


I.I 


Mfg. and Mechanical . 
Transportation . . . 
PubUc Service . . . 


31 
2 
6 


8 




39 
2 
6 


10.3 
0.7 
2.0 


2.0 
0.0 
0.0 


5-0 
0.3 
0.8 


177 
24 
31 


4.2 


Commercial .... 
Professional .... 
Domestic Service ^ . 


36 

125 




143 

234 

10 


179 

359 
10 


12.0 

41-3 
0.0 


32.5 
51-5 

2.'. 


23.6 

48.8 

1-3 


183 
85 

2 


24.4 

II. 4 

0-3 


Common Labor . . 











0.0 


0.0 


0.0 


6 


0.8 


No Choice, or no Oc- 


















cupation Given . . 


51 


51 


102 


16.7 


II-5 


13-5 


45 


6.0 


Totals 


303 


446 


749 


100. 


100. 


100. 


749 


100. 



1 The ten girls coming under this designation expressed an ambition to become " home-makers " 
or " housewives." Strictly speaking, they do not belong to the " Domestic Service " class of gainful 
workers, but there was no other designation under which their choices could be indicated. 



2. Contrast between Occupations of Fathers and the 
Occupational Ambitions of Their Children 

Table 49 makes a comparison between the occupations of 
the fathers of the Boise high school pupils and the voca- 
tional ambitions of the pupils themselves. Approximately 



252 The Boise Survey 

25 per cent of the fathers are engaged in agriculture; only 
7 per cent of the pupils plan to engage in that vocation; 23 
per cent of the fathers make a living in manufacturing and 
mechanical pursuits; only 5 per cent of the boys and girls 
are ambitious along those lines. When we come to the Com- 
mercial subdivision, which includes "trade" and "clerical" 
occupations, we find that there are 24 per cent of the fathers 
and 24 per cent of the pupils classified under that head. It 
should be noted, however, that most of the fathers are en- 
gaged in "trade," while most of the pupils, especially the 
girls, are ambitious to occupy clerical positions as stenog- 
raphers, bookkeepers, etc. 

The most pronounced contrast between occupations of 
fathers and ambitions of pupils is found under the designa- 
tion "Professional." Here we find that while only 11 per 
cent of the fathers are engaged in professional callings, there 
are 49 per cent of the boys and girls who would like to 
enter some profession. Of the 125 boys who mentioned 
some profession, 8 wanted to be chemists; 24, lawyers; 26, 
doctors; 57, engineers; and only 3, teachers; none wanted 
to be preachers. There were 7 miscellaneous. Of the 234 
girls who mentioned a professional career, 8 wanted to be 
artists; 8, musicians; 3, actresses; 3, missionaries; 4, libra- 
rians; 24, trained nurses; and 175, teachers; miscellaneous, 
9. These two groups — 125 boys and 234 girls — comprised 
49 per cent of the 749 high school pupils who expressed a 
vocational preference. 

3. Social and Economic Status a Factor in 
High School A ttendance 

Table 49, middle section, showing per cents of fathers of 
grade and high school pupils coming under each rank, shows 
that the high school recruits its pupils more from the upper 
three ranks, I, II, and III, than does the grade school. It 
appears that 81.78 per cent of the high school pupils come 
from homes where the rank of the father's occupation is 



Educational and Vocational Guidance 253 

I, II, or III, and only 11.6 of the high school pupils come 
from homes where the father's occupation ranks IV or V. 
In the case of the grade children, there are 68.8 per cent who 
come from homes where the father's occupation ranks I, II, 
or III, and 26.6 per cent, or over twice as many in propor- 
tion, who come from homes where the father's occupation 
ranks IV or V. 

These facts, combined with the fact, as shown in Table 
47, that while 117 fathers of grade pupils, or 6.78 per cent, 
are engaged in common labor, only 6 fathers of high school 
pupils, or 0.8 per cent, are engaged in common labor, make 
it clear that the high school population is rather highly 
selected socially and economically. The unavoidable infer- 
ence is that a great many children from the homes where 
the father is engaged in semi-skilled or unskilled labor, which 
are represented in Table 50 by ranks IV and V, are under 
the economic necessity of leaving school and going to work as 
soon as they have completed the eight grades of the grammar 
school. Failing to arrive at this goal, they drop out and go 
to work as soon as they have reached the legal age, which 
for the state of Idaho is 18 years. 

Statistical studies by Thorndike and Strayer show that 
from 40 to 60 per cent of the pupils who enter the grade 
schools never enter high school at all. That by far the 
greater proportion of those who drop out are the children 
from the homes where the occupational status of the father 
is that of semi-skilled or unskilled labor is indicated by 
Tables 49 and 50. The same fact is indicated by a similar 
study of 1479 California high school pupils. From this 
study it appeared that only 10.3 per cent came from homes 
where the father's occupation ranked IV, and 2.6 per cent 
where the father's occupation ranked V. Over 80 per cent of 
the high school pupils in the nine California high schools 
included in the study came from homes where the father's 
occupation ranked I, II, or III. 

These facts tend to prove that the greatest amount of elim- 
ination from our public schools is found among pupils who 



254 ^^^ Boise Survey 

come from homes where there is the least chance that they 
will receive adequate educational and vocational guidance. 
There is much evidence to support the contention that most 
of this elimination would be prevented if our public schools 
gave the attention they should to scientific guidance in the 
matter of school work and possible life-careers. 

As further evidence of the need of guidance in the matter 
of the selection of a vocation, reference is had again to 
Tables 48 and 49. Table 48 gives the percentages of people 
engaged in the main occupational subdivisions in the United 
States, in the Pacific and in the Mountain States, and also 
in Boise. Table 49 shows the occupational ambitions of 
the Boise high school pupils and the distribution of the 
occupations of the fathers. Almost one half (49.0 per cent) 
of the high school pupils plan to enter a profession, whereas 
only about one tenth (11.4 per cent) of the fathers of the 
high school pupils in Boise and only 5.2 per cent of the gain- 
ful workers of the Mountain States are engaged in profes- 
sional pursuits. 

Again, only 6.7 per cent of the Boise high school pupils 
plan a career along agricultural lines, while 25.2 per cent of 
the fathers of Boise high school pupils are engaged in agri- 
culture, and 32.4 per cent of the gainful workers in the 
Mountain division are engaged in agricultural occupations. 
The same discrepancy is found in the case of manufacturing 
and mechanical pursuits. There are 23.3 per cent of the 
Boise fathers of high school pupils engaged in the last- 
mentioned occupations, but only 5 per cent of the high 
school pupils have vocational ambitions in that direction. 

The only point where there is approximate agreement be- 
tween the percentage of workers engaged in a group of 
occupations and the occupational ambitions of the high 
school pupils of Boise comes under the heading "Commer- 
cial," where 23.6 per cent of the pupils' ambitions fall, and 
in which 24.4 per cent of the fathers of the high school pu- 
pils are engaged; but, as previously explained, most of the 
fathers are engaged in trade or business as owners, managers, 



Educational and Vocational Guidance 255 



TABLE 50 

Showing the Rank of the Occupations of the Fathers of Boise High 
School and Grade Pupils, and also the Rank of the Vocational 
Ambitions of 749 High School Pupils, According to an Occupational 
Scale Based on Training and Ability Necessary for Success in 
the Occupation 





Numbers 


Per Cents 


Vocational 

Ambitions of 

High School 

Pupils 


Rank of 
Occupation 1 


s « ^ 

c^ »:^ 3 


Fathers of 
High School 
Pupils 


"a 

e3 


a ^ ^ 


Fathers of 
High School 
Pupils 


73 


No. 


Per 
Cent 


I 

II 

Ill 

IV 

V 

No Occupation 

or Voc. Amb. 

Given .... 


216 
383 

573 
215 
238 

80 


141 

249 

227 

48 

39 

45 


357 
632 
800 
263 

277 

125 


12.7 
22.5 
33-6 
12.6 
14.0 

4.6 


18.8 

33-4 

2,0.2 

6.4 

5-2 

6.0 


14.5 
25.8 
32.6 

10.7 

II-3 
5-1 


277 
173 

19s 

2 


102 


37.0 
23.1 
26. 2 

0.2 
0.0 

13 -5 


Totals 


1705 


749 


2454 


100. 


100. 


lOO.O 


749 


100. 



1 Rank I is made up of the professional occupations: law, medicine, the 
ministry, higher grade of teachers, engineers, etc.; also of high 
state and government officials, large property holders, owners 
and managers of large business and manufacturing establishments, 
etc. 

Rank II consists of the semi-professional, higher clerical and managerial 
positions, grade teachers, etc. 

Rank III is made up of skilled workmen, carpenters, mechanics, etc.; also 
of office workers, salesmen, etc. 

Rank IV includes semi-skilled workmen; also street-car motormen, and 
conductors, policemen, letter carriers, etc. 

Rank V includes unskilled miners, mill workers, factory hands, day 
laborers, and all classes of unskilled operatives. 



256 The Boise Survey 

or salesmen, while the bulk of the ambitions of the pupils 
runs to clerical positions. 

4. The Schools' Responsibility for Guidance 

It is reasonably certain that in the long run the occupa- 
tional distribution of the pupils in the public schools of 
Boise will approximate the percentages of the Mountain 
division of states and of Boise itself. Much time will be 
saved, much energy conserved, and the best interests of 
the pupils and the state will be advanced if the pupils of 
the Boise schools receive such information about occupa- 
tions in general and about the qualifications necessary for 
success in them, and such help from their teachers in esti- 
mating their abilities, as will enable them to make wise 
selection of their life occupation while still in school. 

If in addition to wise vocational guidance the pupils in 
the intermediate and high schools are given careful educa- 
tional guidance, — i.e., such help in planning their courses 
of study in the light of their vocational ambitions as will 
enable them to see the connection between their school tasks 
and their life beyond the school, — there will result a better 
motivation of school work, pupils will remain in school 
longer, and the schools will more nearly fulfill their function 
of preparing the boys and girls of Boise for the duties of 
citizenship, the responsibilities of bread-winning, and the 
socially profitable enjoyment of their leisure time. 

A REASONABLE PROGRAM OF EDUCATIONAL AND 
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE FOR BOISE 

I. Part-time Counselors 

At least one member of the high school teaching staff 
should be qualified to organize and supervise the work in 
educational and vocational guidance in the high school. This 
teacher, preferably a vice-principal, should be relieved from 
at least one half his teaching work and charged with the 



Educational and Vocational Guidance 257 

responsibility of carrying out a definite plan for the educa- 
tional and vocational guidance of high school pupils. In 
the grades there should be one teacher in each building, 
preferably the principal, to take charge of this important 
feature of the school work. 

2, Uniform Blanks and Cards for Gathering 
Necessary Information 

Space should be provided on the regular record cards for 
items relative to vocational aptitudes, preferences, etc., as 
observed by a pupil's different teachers during his progress 
through the grades. There should also be notations regard- 
ing moral and physical qualities. These items, combined 
with the customary record of school marks, would be of in- 
valuable aid to educational and vocational counselors. The 
necessity for recording these facts would give the classroom 
teacher a more intimate knowledge of her pupils and tend 
to develop her interest in the vocational future of those 
under her care. Thus cooperation with the official coun- 
selors would be assured. 

J. Life-career Classes 

After a vocational survey of the high school has been 
made, or of the pupils in the upper grades of the grammar 
school, those who express a preference for a given occupation 
can be brought together in a special class or group once a 
week, to make a special study of that occupation. These 
classes should take up and discuss personal qualities de- 
manded of those who engage in such an occupation, prepara- 
tion required, wages or income to be expected, length of 
working season, conditions of work, organization of the in- 
dustry, opportunities for regular employment, opportunities 
for advancement, etc. 

Beginning with the occupation in which the members of 
the group are most interested, the work can be extended to 
include many different occupations. Where it is not possible 



258 The Boise Survey 

to organize special classes, much valuable information re- 
garding vocations can be imparted to the pupils by assigning 
different occupations as topics for themes in English com- 
position and also by encouraging debates on the relative 
merits of occupations in which the children are interested. 
The local Chamber of Commerce will be glad to cooperate 
in the matter of collecting information about the occupations 
of Boise and vicinity, the public library will no doubt be 
willing to develop a collection of standard books dealing 
with the various occupations, while business and professional 
men will gladly give time to talk with interested boys and 
girls about their own lines of work, provided specific dates 
are made and definite instructions as to just what is wanted 
of them are forthcoming. 

4. Placement 

The most satisfactory vocational guidance is that which 
not only assists the individual in acquiring vocational in- 
formation and in estimating his own qualifications in the 
light of the demands of different occupations upon intelli- 
gence, character, and aptitude, but also provides opportunity 
for vocational experimentation. The so-called vocational 
subjects are for the most part given under ^'school" con- 
ditions and for that reason do not constitute a genuine "try- 
out" in the occupation for which they are designed to be a 
preparation. It is necessary for the school authorities in 
charge of vocational and educational guidance, therefore, 
to work out some plan of part-time employment, or vacation 
placement in occupations akin to the life-career interests 
of those who are about to complete their education. This 
is not so vital in the case of those who expect to continue 
their education in colleges, universities, and other institu- 
tions beyond the high school ; but for those in the grades and 
in the high school who must enter the competition for a 
livelihood without the advantage which comes from higher 
education, there is need for a certain amount of occupational 



Educational and Vocational Guidance 259 

prospecting in order that final adjustment to the best pos- 
sible occupation may be made as soon as possible after 
leaving school. 

To this end the public schools should maintain a place- 
ment bureau, which would have available all the information 
concerning the vocational ambitions and physical and mental 
characteristics of the pupils that the teachers and vocational 
counselors have been able to gather. Efforts should be 
made by this bureau to place the boys and girls who are 
most likely to be compelled to leave school early in posi- 
tions in line with their vocational interests and abilities for 
the summer vacations, or for part-time work during the 
school year. By keeping in touch with youth so placed, the 
counselors will be in a much better position to give them 
sound advice, and to help them in selecting the occupation 
which they should ultimately enter, than in any other way. 

5. Employment of Psychological Tests 

Psychological tests were applied to the drafted personnel 
of the army, and the results proved to be immensely valu- 
able in the classification of the men and their placement in 
the situations where they would be able to render the most 
effective service. Among other things it was found that 
there are different levels of intelligence found among those 
engaged in different occupations. For example, engineer 
officers made an average score in the psychological tests 
four times greater than that made by common laborers. A 
commission, under the auspices of the Rockefeller Founda- 
tion, is now at work adapting the tests used in the army to 
the needs of the public schools. Every city of the size and 
importance of Boise should have on the teaching or super- 
visorial staff of its public schools a person competent to 
administer and interpret the results of individual and group 
mental tests. 

A concrete example will illustrate the possible use of 
mental tests in educational and vocational guidance. One 



26o The Boise Survey 

of the members of the survey staff was requested to test a 
high school pupil with the Stanford Revision of the Binet- 
Simon Intelligence Scale. It was found that this pupil, who 
was in the 9B grade and 17 years and 2 months old, had 
the mentality of a child 1 1 years of age. She had attempted 
four subjects: English, Latin, General Science, and Sewing. 
She failed during the first semester in Latin, General 
Science, and Sewing, barely scoring a passing grade in Eng- 
lish. The mental test was given near the close of the school 
year, and all her teachers had handed in her name as one 
doing work below passing grade for the second semester. 
The test revealed in 40 minutes what it took the high school 
teachers a whole year to find out; namely, that the girl did 
not have the mental ability to do high school work. A year 
of her time and of the energy of her teachers was wasted. 

Mental tests, wisely employed, would put the teachers 
and vocational counselors in possession of knowledge of the 
pupil's intellectual capacity which could be utilized both 
in planning his course of study so that he would be able to 
master his school work and make progress according to his 
ability, and also in determining the general occupational 
level to which he might aspire with reasonable hope of 
success. 



SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. Educational and vocational guidance was found to be 
neglected in the Boise schools. 

2. That work along these lines is much needed is shown 
by tables giving the distribution of occupations engaged in 
by the fathers of Boise grade and high school pupils; also 
by the distribution of gainful workers in the main occupa- 
tional subdivisions in the United States at large, as well as 
for the Pacific and Mountain states; finally by the dis- 
crepancy shown to exist between the vocational ambitions 
of pupils and the percentages of workers engaged in the 
different lines of gainful endeavor in Boise and vicinity. 



Educational and Vocational Guidance 261 

3. A reasonable program of educational and vocational 
guidance is recommended for the Boise public schools. Such 
a program would consist of (a) the appointment of part-time 
counselors in the high and grade schools; (6) the use of uni- 
form blanks for recording educational and vocational data; 
(c) the organization of life-career classes for gathering and 
imparting information concerning occupations; {d) develop- 
ment of a system of placement to enable pupils to get part- 
time and vacation experience along the lines of their occupa- 
tional ambitions; (e) the employment of mental tests as a 
means of discovering the native endowment of pupils in order 
that school tasks may be adapted to their ability and voca- 
tions suggested in which they will have a chance of ultimate 
success. 



CHAPTER XII 
COSTS AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT 

THE PROBLEM STATED 

THERE is no single aspect of a school system more 
difficult to judge accurately at the present time than 
that of costs. The conditions of war have not only modified 
our educational aims but they have so altered the value of 
money and of commodities as to make all past financial 
standards next to useless as a basis for judging present- 
day expenditures. Any comparison of present with past 
costs must therefore be considered in the light of these 
fluctuating values. We can keep in mind that most fluctua- 
tions have been upward and that figures for 1919 must for 
this reason alone be much higher than similar figures for 
five or ten years earlier. 

In this report the weak points in Boise's school system 
have been pointed out and recommendations have been 
made for numerous improvements. The report calls for 
a larger teaching force; for more thorough supervision; for 
additions to curriculum; for added library and equipment; 
for better buildings; for greater attention to matters of 
health and physical development; for certain lines of re- 
organization; for the organization of special classes; for 
vocational and educational guidance ; for night schools ; and, 
finally, for the development of a junior college. While some 
of these changes will call for no more than a rearrangement 
of present expenditures, others will call for additional out- 
lays. Is Boise financially able to assume this larger obliga- 
tion, remembering that tiie city is growing rapidly and even 
with the present program must gradually enlarge her educa- 
tional budget? 

In Chapter I certain facts were brought out which tend 
to show that Boise occupies a favorable position in the mat- 

263 



Costs and Business Management 263 

ter of educational costs. The city is growing; it has promise 
of rapid financial development; the population is becoming 
more and more homogeneous ; the city ranks low in number 
of children of school age and high in young adults; general 
government — police, fire, and health protection, etc. — cost 
relatively less in Boise than elsewhere; illiteracy, though 
still a problem, is on the decrease; there is no unusual pres- 
sure for the development of technical schools with expensive 
laboratories; and the city has been operating with a rela- 
tively low tax rate. Every one of these items gives Boise a 
financial advantage when it comes to providing the kind and 
amount of education needed by the city's children. Opposed 
to this favorable showing is the single fact that Boise's per 
capita wealth is slightly below average for cities of that class. 

The following tables will form a basis for judging of the 
extent to which Boise is living up to her obligations in the 
matter of expenditures for education. 

Boise's income for education is derived mainly from the 
state, the county, and the district and from tuition from 
outside pupils. During the past decade the total annual 
income has varied from $200,000 to $250,000, while the 
expenditures have ranged from $180,000 to $280,000 per 
year. 

With this amount of money Boise is now keeping up ten 
school buildings and adding a new building this year, and 
providing training for approximately 3500 children, or 
roughly one fifth of the city's population. 

Table No. 51 shows Boise's place among 26 cities of her 
own class in respect to per capita cost of education.^ From 
this table it will be seen that Boise spends $5.36 for each 
man, woman, or child in the city. The range for the 26 
cities is from $2.30 to $8.96 per capita. This gives Boise 
a median position. A closer study of the table, however, 

1 There are gi cities in the United States with populations of 30,000 to 
50,000. These 26 cities are representative of the group, in that all states 
containing such cities are represented by at least one city. (Based on 
Financial Statistics of Cities, United States Census, 191 7.) 



264 



The Boise Survey 



Boise's school costs compared with those 
IN other cities 

I. Per Capita Cost of Education 

TABLE 51 

Per Capita Cost of Education in 26 Cities (Financial Statistics 
OF Cities, United States Census, 1917) 



City 



Per Capita Cost 



1. Brookline, Mass. . . 

2. Elmira, N. Y. ... 

3. Madison, Wis. . . . 

4. Stockton, Calif. . . . 

5. Colorado Springs, Colo 

6. Stamford, Conn. . . . 

7. Orange, N. J 

8. Ogden, Utah .... 

9. Tulsa, Okla 

10. Everett, Wash. . . . 

11. Bellingham, Wash. . . 

12. Niagara Falls, N. Y. . 

13. BOISE, IDAHO . . 

14. Charleston, W. Va. . 

15. Jackson, Mich. . . . 

16. Aurora, 111 

17. Easton, Pa 

18. Joplin, Mo 

19. Knoxville, Tenn. . . 

20. Austin, Texas .... 

21. Zanesville, Ohio . . . 

22. Newport, Ky. . . . 

23. Shreveport, La. . . . 

24. Columbia, S. C. . . . 

25. Wilmington, N. C. . . 

26. Portsmouth, Va. . . . 



96 
22 
94 
94 
03 
93 
55 
27 
21 
14 
99 
70 
36 
29 
28 
23 
91 
73 
37 
32 
87 
04 
90 
47 
31 
30 



Average, 26 cities, 5.39 Median, 26 cities, 5.33 

shows that there is not a western city that ranks lower than 
Boise. Among the 91 cities of this class in the United 



Costs and Business Management 



26s 



BROOKLINE,tnmS. 
FRE3N0. CffLIF. 
^TOCKTOn.C^UE 
COL OR^DO'SPRGS^COL. 
S^NJOSF.C^UF. 
OGDFN, UT/QH 
D/EREJT, W/:JSH. 
BEL L IN6H/7M, W/7SH. 
BO/6€y IMHO 
BCfTTE.MONmm ^ 

P£R CaPlT/1 COST IN $ 



^^ 



^ 



^^ 



^^^ 



5 6 



6 9 lb 



Fig. 37. Per Capita Cost of Education in Western Cities of Boise's 
Population Class 

States there are four western cities which are not included 
in our table: Pasadena, San Jose, and Fresno, California, 
with per capita costs of $10.06, $7.02, and $8.33, respec- 
tively, and Butte, Montana, with a per capita cost of $5.30. 
Boise should be compared with western cities rather than 
with the United States as a whole, and when so compared 
her position is seen by Figure 37 to argue that Boise must 
increase her expenditures for education if she wishes to keep 
pace with neighboring cities. 



2. Cost per Person 5 to ig Years Old Inclusive 

If Boise were providing schooling for all who are legally 
entitled to it, that would include all children between the ages 
of 6 and 21 years. Figures to compute cost on this basis 
are not available for all cities, though by using figures from 
Tables 4 and 51 we can compute approximately the 191 7 
cost per census child. 

Table 52 shows Boise's position among the 26 cities when 
so compared. 

Owing to Boise's extremely low percentage of children 
5 to 19 years old, the city holds a more favorable place in 
this table. The range is from $8.2 7 to $44.35- Boise spends 
$24.47. The average for the 26 cities is $21.91, and the 



266 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 52 

Cost of Schools per Person 5 to 19 Years Old.^ (This is Approxi- 
mately THE Cost per Census Child.) (Computed from Tables 4 and 51) 



City 


Cost 


I Brookline, Mass 


$44-35 
40.72 

32.66 
31.76 
28.70 
25-85 
24.47 
23-56 
23-52 
23 30 
23.27 
23.16 
21.84 
20.27 
19.56 
18.82 
16.95 
15-86 
15-44 
14-74 
II II 


2. Stockton, Calif 


1 Elmira NY 


4. Everett, Wash 


5 Madison Wis. 


6. Colorado Springs, Colo 

1 Stamford Conn. 


8. BOISE, IDAHO 

9. Orange, N. J 

10 Tulsa Okla 


11. Billingham, Wash 

12. Niagara Falls, N. Y 

13. Jackson, Mich 

14 Ogden Utah 




16 Easton Pa. . . .... 


17. Charleston, W. Va 

18 Toolin Mo ... 


19. Zanesville, Ohio 

20. Knoxville, Tenn 

21. Austin, Texas 

22 Shreveoort La 


23 Newport Ky 


II 01 


24. Columbus, S. C 

25. Wilmington, N. C 

26. Portsmouth, Va 


8-55 
8.31 
8-27 





Average, 26 cities, 21.91 



Median, 26 cities, 22.50 



median is $22.50. This slight advantage, however, cannot 
be interpreted to mean that Boise is making relatively large 
expenditures for schools. Being fourth from lowest in point 
of numbers to provide for, the city should hold the fourth 

1 Only 3 of the 26 cities have a lower percentage of children 5 to 19 
years old than has Boise. See Table 53 and the comments following. 



Costs and Business Management 



267 



TABLE 53 

Cost of Schools per Child in Average Daily Attendance (Computed 
FROM Statistics in the Report of the United States Commissioner 
of Education for 19 17, Vol. II) 



City 


Cost 


1. Brookline, Mass 

2. Stockton, Calif 


$76 
61 


3. BOISE, IDAHO 

4. Colorado Springs, Colo 

5. Bellingham, Wash 

6. Everett, Wash. . . 


58 

57 
54 
51 
49 

48 

48 

45 
40 

39 
37 
37 
37 
35 
31 
30 
30 
29 
24 
22 


7. Madison, Wis 


8. Aurora, 111 


9. Ehnira, N. Y 


10. Stamford, Conn 

11. Niagara Falls, N. Y 

12. Jackson, Mich 


13. Easton, Pa 


14. Tulsa, Okla. . . . 


15. Zanesville, Ohio 

16. Ogden, Utah 


17. Charlotte, N. C 

18. Knoxville, Tenn 

19. Newport, Ky 


20. Austin, Texas 


21. Joplin, Mo 


22. Shreveport, La. . . 


23. Columbia, S. C 


21 


24. Portsmouth, Va 

25. Wilmington, N. C 

26. Orange, N. J 


21 
No data 







Average, 24 cities, 40 



Median, 24 cities, 38 



place from the top in this table, whereas it is No. 8 instead, 
which must be regarded as relatively low. 

3. Cost per Child in Average Daily Attendance 

From the standpoint of average daily attendance, Boise's 
position among these cities for the year 191 6 was subs tan- 



268 The Boise Survey 

tially what it should have been. From Table 53 it will be 
seen that Boise holds third place in the list. 

The range in expenditure per pupil in average daily at- 
tendance for these 26 cities is from $21 to $76. Boise spent 
$58, ranking among the more progressive cities. In view 
of her relatively low number of school children, this really 
places Boise as an average city, or very slightly above the 
average, and not as one of the leading cities. 

4. Amount of Wealth behind Each Dollar 
Spent on Education 

Another view of Boise's position among these cities is 
seen in Table 54, where the cost of maintaining schools is 
stated in terms of the city's wealth. 

From this table we see that for every dollar spent on edu- 
cation, Boise possesses $160 of wealth. Columbia, S. C, has 
$723 for each dollar it spends on schools, while Elmira, 
N. Y., has but $102. The average for the 26 cities is $252, 
and the median is $2 1 2 . 

When judged by what other cities are doing, this table 
argues that the wealth of Boise is bearing somewhat more 
than an average burden for its schools. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that there are a number of wealthy eastern 
cities included in this table with which Boise could scarcely 
expect to compete. Attention also is called to the fact that 
in this table only one of the western cities, Stockton, ranks 
above Boise. Finally, by Table 8, we are again reminded 
that Boise's tax rate is below rather than above the average. 

5. Cost of Education per Capita of Young Adults 

The meaning of Table 54 is further modified when we 
consider Boise's expenditures in terms of her man power to 
produce wealth. Table 4 shows that Boise ranks high in 
adults 20 to 44 years old, and this must be recognized as 
an asset to the city. Table 55 shows that Boise spends on 
her schools less per young adult than is spent by the average 
of cities in her class. 



Costs and Business Management 



269 



TABLE 54 

Showing the Amount of Real Wealth behind Each Dollar Spent 

FOR THE Maintenance of Schools 



City 



1. Columbia, S. C. . . . 

2. Shreveport, La, . . . 

3. Wilmington, N. C. . 

4. Brookline, Mass. . . 

5. Charleston, W. Va. . 

6. Portsmouth, Va. . . . 

7. Stockton, Calif, . . , 

8. Zanesville, Ohio , , , 

9. Madison, Wis. . . , 

10. Aurora, 111 

11. Newport, Ky. . . , 

12. Easton, Pa 

13. Austin, Texas .... 

14. Knoxville, Tenn. . , 

15. Niagara Falls, N. Y. . 

16. Jackson, Mich. . . . 

17. Joplin, Mo 

18. Stamford, Conn.. . . 

19. Tulsa, Okla 

20. BOISE, IDAHO . . 

21. Ogden, Utah . , , . 

22. Colorado Springs, Colo, 

23. Bellingham, Wash,, . 

24. Everett, Wash, . . . 

25. Orange, N. J 

26. Elmira, N. Y. ... 



Amount 



$723 
548 
471 
437 
343 
297 
282 
258 
250 

233 
222 
219 
212 
212 
201 
200 
177 
170 
161 
160 
159 
156 
135 
127 
107 
102 



Average, 26 cities, 252 



Median, 26 cities, 212 



After careful study of the facts touching: 

1. Cost per capita of entire population (Table 51), 

2. Cost per person 5 to 19 years old in the city (Table 
52), 

3. Cost per child in average daily attendance (Table 53), 



270 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 55 

Amount Spent on Education for Each Person in the City Who 

Is 20 TO 44 Years Old (Computed from Tables 4 and 54) 



City 


Amount 


I. Elmira, N. Y 


$18.81 


2 Stockton Calif 


18.81 


3. Brookline, Mass 


18.28 


4. Madison, Wis 

5 Stamford, Conn 


16.46 
16.00 


6. Colorado Springs, Colo 

7. Orange, N. J 

8. Ogden, Utah 


15.66 

1537 
14.80 


9 Tulsa Okla. 


12.65 
12.56 
12.04 

11-73 
11.72 
11.69 
10.74 
10.61 


10. Bellingham, Wash 

II Aurora III 


12. Jackson, Mich 

13. Niagara Falls, N. Y 

I A Easton Pa . . 


15. Joplin, Mo 

16. Austin Texas 


17. BOISE, IDAHO 

18 Everett Wash 


10.61 

10.33 
9-54 
8.96 
8.54 
6.86 


19. Knoxville, Tenn 

20. Zanesville, Ohio 

21. Charleston, W. Va 

22 Newport Ky 


23, Shreveport, La 

''4 Wilmington N C 


6.43 
5-48 
517 
4-94 


25. Columbia, S. C 


26 Portsmouth Va. 





Average, 26 cities, 11. 31 



Median, 26 cities, 11.70 



4. Amount of real wealth back of each dollar spent for 
schools (Table 54), 

5. Cost per young adult (20 to 44 years old) (Table 55), 
the writer is convinced that Boise could immediately in- 
crease her educational budget by enough to carry out the 



Costs and Business Management 271 

principal recommendations of this report and still have a 
tax rate below that of the leading cities of the group studied. 
The highest tax rate ($25.30 per $1000) of the 26 cities is 
borne by Everett, Washington, the lowest ($10.46) by 
Columbia, South Carolina. Boise ranks 14th in the list, with 
a rate of $18.04. The difference between a rate of $18.04 
and $25.30 for Boise is the difference between a mediocre 
school system on the one hand and a high-class modern 
system on the other. Boise should be in the lead, not only 
for her own sake, but because of the wide influence her 
leadership would exert over the whole Northwest. The 
taxpayer of Boise must see that to exercise such leadership 
will in the long run bring large returns to the city aside from 
the immediate value of good schools, to which the people 
of Boise are justly entitled. 

HOW Boise's school expenditures are distributed 

J. Distribution of a Decade of Boise's School 
Expenditures 

In Figure 3 was shown how Boise spends each dollar of 
her income. In Table 9 it was noted that Boise devotes a 
relatively large portion of that dollar to the maintenance of 
schools. Our question here is: Does Boise spend her school 
money wisely? 

Table 56 shows the distribution of Boise's school expendi- 
tures for the past ten years. 

There are several points of interest about these figures. 
The cost of general control has not increased very greatly; 
the cost of instruction increased rapidly for a few years and 
then remained stationary even through the war years; the 
cost of operation has about doubled, the effects of the war 
being evident; the increase in cost of maintenance has been 
steady but more rapid than that for operation; the expendi- 
tures for "outlays" (buildings and grounds) have been ir- 
regular and roughly on the decline; and the total costs have 
grown rather slowly. Figure 38 makes the more important 
of these facts and tendencies clear. 



2 72 



The Boise Survey 



TABLE 56 

Showing a Decade of the Distribution of Boise's School Expendi- 
tures (Compiled from Annual Reports of the Clerk of the Board 
OF Education) 

Note: Several of the lesser expenditures have been grouped differently from 
year to year, which would modify this table in some details, 











(U 




S 
















u 







U cd 






Year 


II 

C3 Cl 


a 
.2 

u 

2 


1 






^1 


tlays, A 
isitions,i 
nstructi 


00 

a 


Total 




6d 




& 


1^ 


^^ 


§^ 


3 H 
D-U 


ofi 




1910 


7,154 


82,962 


15,262 


2,925 


238 


252 


57,729 


12,896 


179,421 


1911 


8,708 


109,402 


19,369 


4,167 


III 


612 


57,841 


13,387 


213,600 


1912 


8,651 


131,245 


16,301 


5,958 


2,189 


475 


41,573 


18,885 


225,282 


1913 


10,024 


138,654 


16,516 


4,606 


3,876 


526 


80,721 


27,152 


282,116 


1914 


8,140 


145,656 


16,849 


5,267 


1,725 


205 


40,590 


24,007 


242,443 


1915 


7,731 


142,561 


19,882 


7,524 


5,522 


509 


3,066 


27,514 


214,313 


1916 


7,483 


144,408 


18,002 


8,587 


89 


50 


3,101 


26,273 


209,540 


1917 


7,863 


142,248 


26,599 


9,440 


513 


.... 


11,383 


31,177 


229,226 


1918 


9,306 


144,245 


30,480 


18,620 


1,031 


1149 


18,784 


20,539 


250,847 


1919 


11,002 


149,028 


26,663 


13,100 


2,406 


1795 


6,723 


22,529 


233,201 



As has been shown in this report, the upward tendency of 
the curve representing outlays is inevitable. The real sur- 
prise of the figure is that the instruction curve does not rise 
noticeably after 1914. In the light of increase in population 
and wealth, this is not as it should be. 

2. Division of Cost between Elementary and 
High Schools 

As yet, little theorizing has been done on the relative em- 
phasis which a democracy should place upon secondary 



Costs and Business Management 



273 



dPO 




1910 Idll 19)2 1913 1914 1915 I9J6 1917 1918 1919 



Fig. 38. A Decade of Boise's Expenditures for Schools, together 
WITH THE Three Principal Items of the Education Budget 



education. The high school has fought its way into the 
public school system, and now its rights to expand are rarely 
questioned. In fact, the high school has become so popular 
in some states that there is some question as to whether it 
is not getting the lion's share of the school money. 

Figure 39 shows what per cent of total school expendi- 



2 74 



The Boise Survey 



PEff ceirr 
I. EVERPTf.W/lSH. 

2 Ma D/ J ON. m J. 

3. BElUNdHaM, WaSH. 

4. COLORADO SPRGJ^COLO. 

5. /^URORa. ILL. 
0. LORaiN, OHIO 

7 STOCKTON, cmtr. 
3. BOtS£, /O/JHO 

9. NI/VS^PKi FflLL^^N.y. 
la BROOKLINE, M/JSS. 
//. KNOXVILLE. TCNN. 
IZ WACO. TCKflJ 
Id. WHEELING. WEJT V/J. 

14. EffJTON. pa 
I5.ELMIRA,N.Y. 

la. oeoEN. uraH 

17. COLUMBIA. S.C 
Id. TULS/Q. OK La. 

15. CHORL OTTE. N. C. 
2a S TflMFORO, CONN. 
21. NEWPORT. KV. 
22.SHREVEPORT. La. 
23.JaCKS0N. MICH. 

24 WESTHOBOKEN. N. J. 
2S.PORTJ MOUTH. Va. 
Z6.JQPLIN, MO. 

PE/yCtNT 



SO 



30 40 SO CO 70 60 



Fig. 39. Showing the Per Cent of Total School Expenditures Devoted 
TO Maintenance of the High School as Compared with the Per 
Cent of Total School Attendance at the High School 

Heavy line indicates expenditures; lighter line, attendance. 

tures went for high schools in 26 cities in 191 5-1 6. It also 
shows what per cent of the total number of pupils in average 
daily attendance were in attendance at high schools. Joplin, 
Missouri, put 14 per cent of its total school expenditures 
into high schools, while for Everett, Washington, the same 
figure was 33 per cent. Boise stands eighth from the 
highest, devoting 24 per cent of all school expenditures to 
her high school. The average for the 26 cities is 21.9 per 
cent, and the median is 20.5 per cent. Boise stands rela- 
tively high, therefore, in the per cent of her school money 
devoted to high school purposes. 

An examination of the second item in the figure, however, 
shows that there is good reason for this wide variability in 



Costs and Business Management 275 

the per cent of total cost devoted to high schools. But 6 
per cent of the school population of West Hoboken, New 
Jersey, went to high school in 191 6, while in Boise 26 per 
cent went to high school. In no other city of the group was 
the attendance at high school so large a percentage of the 
total average attendance for all schools as at Boise. This is a 
record of which Boise may justly be proud, and one which 
this report must present as substantial evidence of the need 
of a junior college for the district. 

If average daily attendance is used as a basis for deter- 
mining what portion of school expenditures should be de- 
voted to high school support, then a comparison of the two 
bars for each city in Figure 39 is of interest. When this 
figure is so studied, it becomes evident that in practice there 
is little relation between the portion of total funds and the 
portion of total attendance that go to the high school. The 
figure representing the per cent of cost is, in every case but 
two, larger than that representing attendance, and those two 
are Elmira, New York, and Boise, in both of which cases 
the difference is but 2 per cent. In the other cities, the 
per cent of total expenditures devoted to high school is from 
2 to 13 per cent higher than is the per cent of total school 
population which goes to high school. There is therefore 
but one other city in the list which devotes a relatively lower 
proportion of the total school budget to the high school than 
does Boise. Stated another way, Boise gives her elementary 
schools as large a portion of the school budget as is given 
by any city in the list, and far larger than most. 

Without attempting to say just what relation there should 
be between attendance and cost/ as shown in Figure 39, it 
will be noticed that Boise occupies an extreme position 
among the 26 cities, and one that is favorable to the ele- 
mentary schools of the city. It is the judgment of the survey 
staff, based upon a study of the schools, apart from costs, 

1 There are good reasons why high school education should cost more 
per pupil in average attendance than is needed for elementary schools, as 
salaries, laboratory equipment, etc. 



276 The Boise Survey 

that the elementary schools are at present more in need of 
funds than is the high school. In view of the experience of 
other cities, and also of the popularity of the high school, 
Boise would be warranted in a somewhat more liberal use 
of funds for high school work, though the present distribu- 
tion is not to be criticized. 



J. Per Cent of Total Expenditures Devoted to 
Payment for Instruction 

The extent to which a school system keeps down its over- 
head costs is to some extent a measure of the efficiency of 
the system. The lower the overhead costs, the higher will 
be the amount left to pay for instruction. Table 57 shows 
for 23 cities what part of their total school expenditures 
goes to pay for instruction. In this table Boise occupies 
seventh place. 

One city devotes as low as 59 per cent of its total expendi- 
tures to the payment for instruction, while in another city 
this figure is Ss per cent. In Boise 74 per cent of all costs 
are for instruction. Since the average for all the cities in 
the United States of this population group is 72 per cent 
and the average and median for this group is 70 per cent, 
Boise seems to be keeping overhead costs well in hand. 



THE BUSINESS MANAGEMENT OF BOISE's SCHOOLS 

J. The Size of the Task 

The Board of Education in Boise now has eleven buildings 
to care for and operate ; it must purchase supplies and equip- 
ment for the schools; it must receive, store, and distribute 
its supplies and equipment as needed; it must finance the 
project; and it must keep track of its accounts. All together 
this means the expenditure of a quarter of a million dollars 
yearly, which, from the standpoint of business, is no small 
enterprise. 



Costs and Business Management 



277 



TABLE 57 
Per Cent of Total School Expenditures Used to Pay for Instruction 



City 



1. Austin, Texas 

2. Ogden, Utah 

3. Portsmouth, Va 

4. Newport, Ky 

5. Knoxville, Tenn 

6. Niagara Falls, N. Y 

7. BOISE, IDAHO 

8. Shreveport, La 

9. Jackson, Mich 

10. Madison, Wis 

11. Columbia, S. C 

12. Stamford, Conn 

13. Colorado Springs, Colo 

14. Aurora, 111 

15. Bellingham, Wash 

16. Joplin, Mo 

17. Stockton, Calif 

18. Tulsa, Okla 

19. Everett, Wash 

20. Elmira, N. Y 

21. BrookHne, Mass 

22. Easton, Penn 

23. Zanesville, Ohio 

24. Average for all cities in U. S. of 

25,000 to 100,000 population is . 



Per Cent 



79 
79 
78 
77 
77 
74 
73 
71 
71 
70 
70 
68 
67 
67 
67 
66 
66 
65 
63 
61 
60 
59 

72 



Average, 23 cities, 70 Median, 23 cities, 70 

2. How the Business is Handled 

The machinery for carrying on this business is partially 
shown, in Figure 6, to consist of the Board of Trustees, the 
board's committee on finance, a treasurer, and the clerk of 
the board. The clerk acts as bookkeeper and purchasing 
agent and has charge of storage and distribution of supplies. 
Purchases are made only upon requisitions signed by the 



278 The Boise Survey 

superintendent of schools, and are carefully accounted for 
at each stage in the process of purchase, receipt, storage, 
and distribution. The plans for handling all the necessary 
accounts are relatively new, but when fully operating as 
planned for by the present clerk of the board, the school 
system will have a thorough system of checks on all expendi- 
tures. 

In this connection it is recommended that the clerk of the 
board be given a title that more nearly describes his actual 
functions, or the functions suggested by Figure 17. "Clerk 
of the Board and Purchasing Agent" would accomplish this 
end. To this office, then, should be definitely delegated the 
necessary authority, not to determine what to purchase, but 
to purchase, and to manage the receipt, storage, and distribu- 
tion of materials. This would do away with an annoying 
tendency on the part of some to neglect to account for things 
used. In granting this added authority it should be made 
clear that all these duties are to be performed under the 
directions of the superintendent of schools. It is largely 
because of the harmonious relationship between the present 
superintendent and clerk rather than by delegated power 
that the clerk is able to handle the work so efficiently at 
present. A change in either office might alter the situation 
for the worse. Figure 7 presents this plan. Very shortly a 
bookkeeper and supply clerk will be needed in this depart- 
ment. 

The present storage facilities are entirely inadequate and 
unsatisfactory. They enforce delays, they are not very se- 
cure against theft, and they are not sanitary. Many school 
supplies, as books and paper, should be kept free from dust. 

5. Bookkeeping and Cost Accounting 

Boise's system of accounts conforms reasonably closely 
to the plan recommended by the United States Commissioner 
of Education, the N. E. A., and the Association of Public 
School Accountants. The classification of items is suffi- 



Costs and Business Management 2 79 

ciently detailed so that there is little chance of charging an 
item to the wrong account or of covering up large expendi- 
tures under such titles as "Other Things," "Miscellaneous," 
etc. The filing system in use is simple and workable, and 
the books are being kept in good form. Any citizen of Boise 
could easily see what is being done with every single cent 
of the school money; he could see vouchers for every cent, 
and the financial condition of the schools on any day. 

There is one kind of cost accounting, however, that needs 
expansion in Boise. That is the statement of costs in terms 
of some workable unit. It is necessary to know what results 
various kinds of service are producing under different con- 
ditions, etc., in order to locate sources of waste and economi- 
cal methods of operation. One school may be using paper 
at a cost of several cents per child per month more than is 
common in other schools fully comparable. By wrong edu- 
cational methods one school may be spending twice as much 
as another for results in spelling or arithmetic or writing 
which are no better. Poor teaching often costs more than 
good teaching, though we pay less. When schools have 
introduced adequate financial as well as pedagogical methods 
of accounting, so that we may compare cities, schools, and 
departments with respect to janitor service, use of supplies, 
time and money cost of instruction, supervision, etc., then 
and then only can we expect efficient service. A superin- 
tendent should be able to tell his board what it has cost per 
pupil to run each course offered by the schools. Doubtless 
this method is used more or less in informal reports, but we 
recommend that such a plan be worked out and made part 
of the permanent records in order that each year these costs 
may be compared with similar costs of previous years. 

4. Need for a Budget System 

Boise does not budget its school funds. There is every 
reason why a school system should keep pace with modern 
methods in public finance. The budget method of handling 
state expenditures has been adopted by proper legislative 



28o The Boise Survey 

enactment in most of our states, very recently including 
Idaho, and many cities use budgetary procedure in mu- 
nicipal and school affairs. The method is not very old, but 
its merits for economy and wise use of money are well un- 
derstood. With a budget, costs cannot easily become one- 
sided. Each expenditure is carefully decided upon at a time 
when the needs for every other expenditure are being studied. 

To budget the year's money is practically to write out in 
full the board's school policy. That is precisely what any 
other method of finance does not do. In fact, the old way 
of ''pay debts as they come" discourages the making of a 
policy and so makes administration difficult. When a board 
has written its budget in the summer months, it has made 
it possible for the superintendent to work out full plans 
ahead of time. 

When a budget is made it is assumed, even if not stated, 
that the superintendent is authorized without consulting the 
board or any committee to use the funds as budgeted. If 
he wishes he may have the purchasing agent buy in large 
lots and in advance, and so effect a saving. At present this 
is rarely done in Boise. The bad system of ''buy it in our 
town" is still too carefully followed. Local merchants 
should not seek alms at the schoolhouse door. There are a 
few "little'^ merchants of this "pauper" variety in every 
city, and the taxpayer ought to deal with them justly. 

The making of the budget should be the one large, serious, 
and constructive piece of work which a board of education 
does. The work should be done as a single task, by the 
entire board. It should be based on estimates made by the 
superintendent and his staff, together with full inventories 
of supplies on hand and total and unit statements of all 
expenditures for previous years. 

With a budget system and a proper annual audit by a 
certified accountant, the need for a permanent finance com- 
mittee disappears. The use of budgetary procedure and the 
doing away with the present committee on finance are 
strongly recommended. 



Costs and Business Management 281 

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

The main questions which this chapter tries to answer 
are: 

Does the Boise Independent School District spend as 
much money for the maintenance of schools as it is able to 
spend? 

Does the district make a wise apportionment of that 
money to the various school needs? 

Is the business management of the schools satisfactory? 

In answering the first of these questions Boise's expendi- 
tures have been compared with those of a group of cities of 
approximately the same population as Boise and in the fol- 
lowing particulars: 

1. The per capita expenditure for all educational ac- 
tivities. 

2. The expenditure per person 5 to 19 years old. 

3. The expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance. 

4. The amount of wealth back of each dollar spent for 
school maintenance. 

5. The expenditure per young adult (ages 20 to 44). 

In answering the second question, similar comparisons 
were made with respect to: 

1. The division of expenditures between elementary and 
high schools. 

2. The per cent of total expenditures devoted to the pay- 
ment for instruction. 

Boise's per capita expenditure for schools is approxi- 
mately the average expenditure of the 26 cities studied. 

Boise's expenditure per person 5 to 19 years old is very 
slightly above both the average and the median for the 26 
cities. 

Boise's expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance 
is well above the average and the median of 26 cities. 

Boise possesses less wealth per dollar spent on education 
than either the average or median of 26 cities. 

Boise's expenditure per young adult is less than either the 
average or the median for 26 cities. 



282 The Boise Survey 

Boise's division of expenditures between elementary and 
high schools is less favorable to the high school and more 
favorable to the elementary schools than is true of any 
other city among the 26 studied. 

Boise spends a larger proportion of her school money for 
the payment of instruction than is true of the average or of 
the median city of the 23 studied or of the entire group of 
cities in the United States of 25,000 to 100,000 population. 

In addition to these facts, an analysis of ten years of 
Boise's school expenditures shows very slight increases in 
spite of the rapid increase in the city's population and wealth 
and the more recent high costs. 

The arguments of these facts, together with those brought 
out in other parts of this report, are, in the judgment of the 
survey staff, unanswerable in their claims for a larger ex- 
penditure for schools in Boise. Boise is not at the foot of 
the list of cities of her class in school expenditures ; but she 
is far from being in the lead of those cities, and at most 
points Boise is no better than average or below average. A 
slight increase in tax rate would give to the schools the 
money they need to get out of the ''average" and into the 
''modern" group of city school systems. 

In business management Boise's greatest need is for the 
adoption of a budget system, accompanied by a more de- 
tailed system of accounting. A careful plan of records show- 
ing unit costs is highly desirable and almost a necessity in 
working out a budget. 

To carry on the business of the schools satisfactorily, the 
clerk of the board should have added to his ordinary duties 
as clerk those of purchasing agent, and he should be fur- 
nished with proper distributing and storage facilities, as well 
as the necessary clerical assistance. 

With these changes, all of which are believed to be thor- 
oughly feasible, Boise would have a modern system of 
business management. 



CHAPTER XIII 

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

(Sears) 

THE following is a brief statement of the more important 
criticisms and recommendations presented in this sur- 
vey: 

1. From the standpoint of maintaining a school system 
Boise is favorably situated in respect to its political and 
geographical location, the composition and age distribution 
of its population, the low cost of its government, its present 
low tax rate, its prospect for rapid growth and increase of 
wealth, and the generally high intellectual level of the popu- 
lation. 

2. Because of its location and prestige Boise is responsible 
for exercising large educational leadership in the Northwest 
and so should be satisfied with nothing short of the very 
best in education. Boise should be the educational experi- 
ment station for a territory much larger than the state. 

3. The administrative machinery of the city's schools is 
working harmoniously, but with only fair economy, and 
needs revision in the following particulars: 

(a) The board should do away with its standing 
committees and operate as a board only. 

(b) The superintendent should be relieved of much 
of his present responsibility for the supervision of in- 
struction. 

(c) Teaching principalships should, in principle and 
to a large extent in practice, be done away with and 
supervising principalships established. 

(d) The management of attendance should be in the 
hands of school and not juvenile court machinery. 

(e) The present school nurse should be made su- 

283 



284 The Boise Survey 

pervisor of health and attendance and be given at least 
one assistant to serve mainly as home visitor and at- 
tendance officer. 

(/) The present clerk of the board should be made 
purchasing agent and in that capacity be a member of 
the superintendent's staff. 

{g) The present building inspector should be made 
superintendent of buildings and grounds having gen- 
eral oversight of cleaning and repairing buildings and 
should be a regular member of the superintendent's 
staff. Janitors should be under the direct charge of 
school principals. 

4. The extent of the present teaching staff is inadequate 
for any except a formal curriculum and should be supple- 
mented by five or six supervising principals, three or four 
teachers for ungraded rooms, and several supervisors of 
special subjects such as play and physical education, do- 
mestic science, etc. 

5. Boise is paying its teachers something like average 
salaries, but in view of the high class of service which the 
city expects and in view of present money values these 
salaries are still too low. 

6. Boise's high school course of study is in the main ex- 
cellent and the outlines now in preparation should be 
printed. More laboratory work in the social science courses, 
better coordination of commercial work with other lines of 
work, better facilities for evening and continuation courses, 
and a more liberal offering in art expression and music are 
strongly recommended. 

7. The elementary courses are in need of a thorough re- 
vision. Many of the courses contain excellent materials, 
but the courses need to be balanced up. 

8. To bring about the desirable changes in Boise's cur- 
riculum, a junior high school organization should be effected 
at an early date, after which several prevocational courses 
should be offered. 

9. Supervision of instruction, of health and physical de- 



Summary and Recommendations 285 

velopment, and of janitorial service is, in varying degrees, 
inadequate. 

10. The efficiency of instruction as observed and as in- 
dicated by tests is somewhat below par in certain particulars 
but up to standard in others. Children write rapidly enough 
but not legibly enough; in some classes they spell well 
enough or too well, but in others they are weak; in arith- 
metic they handle combinations of whole numbers fairly 
well, but not so with fractions. 

11. There are now existing very serious ill-adjustments 
in the allotment of time to the various studies in the ele- 
mentary schools which may in part account for the far too 
wide variation in test results. To correct this and to over- 
come these wide variations by a more perfect classification 
of the children is a function of supervision. 

12. The amount of retardation in the schools is not un- 
usually large, but there is enough to warrant the recom- 
mendation that schools should make provision for a number 
of ungraded classes. The results of the tests also point 
clearly toward this need, and unless better supervision can 
be provided the need is urgent. 

13. Very great additions to the present playground equip- 
ment are needed. The schools are almost without play ap- 
paratus, so important in the health-development work in the 
schools. 

14. One of the weakest points in Boise^s school system is 
its buildings. As measured, they are from 20 to 40 per cent 
below standard. Though well located and provided with 
proper play space, they are without play apparatus, they 
are without proper fire protection, and they are without 
much needed telephones. They have few adjustable seats 
and desks, very inadequate and unsanitary toilets, and too 
few drinking fountains. 

15. Present articulation between elementary and high 
school is good, though by the organization of a junior high 
school and the accompanying enrichment of the curriculum 
this articulation could still be improved. 



286 The Boise Survey 

1 6. Educational and vocational guidance in the schools is 
much neglected, though the need for both is clearly shown 
by this report. 

17. A part-time educational and vocational counselor, 
competent to use mental and other necessary tests; uniform 
blanks for recording necessary data pertaining to these prob- 
lems; the organization of ''life-career" classes and the de- 
velopment of a system of vocational placement by which 
class training would be supplemented are strongly urged as 
important needs in upper grade and high school classes. 

18. The development of a junior college is possible and 
altogether desirable as a culminating feature of Boise's 
school system. 

19. Boise's expenditures for the maintenance of schools 
have not kept pace with the growth of the city's population 
and wealth and are at present not above — in fact, in some 
respects they are below — the average for cities of that class 
as measured by the best means at hand. It is accordingly 
recommended that the rate of tax for schools be slightly in- 
creased in order that the most important of the needs set 
forth in this report may be realized and thus give to Boise 
the place of leadership which the city of right ought to 
maintain. 

20. School expenditures in Boise are evenly divided be- 
tween elementary and high schools. Considering the present 
efficiency of the two, this division should be maintained for 
at least the next few years. 

21. It is recommended that Boise adopt a budget system 
of finance for its schools and put into use a more detailed 
system of cost accounting. 



INDEX 



Accelerated pupils, 129. 

Administration, 22; Boise's plan of, 
criticized, 28, 39; machinery of, 26, 
37; place of standardized tests in, 
84; the primary function of the 
superintendent, 30. 

Adult education, 10, 

Advisory system in high school, 240. 

Age-grade distribution, 128; stand- 
ards for, 188. 

Age groups, 6; and the education 
problem, 8. 

Americanization work, need for, in 
Boise, 159. 

Attendance, at high school, social 
status a factor in, 252 ; average 
daily, and costs, 273; good record 
of, 128; machinery for control of, 
weak, 34. 

Auditing, board committee on, 27; 
should be done by accountant, 30. 

Ayres, handwriting scale used, 85; 
spelling scale used, 94. 



Backward pupils, 136, 146; Batavia 
teachers for, 147; special classes 
for, 148. 

Basements, 201. 

Batavia plan for backward pupils, 
160. 

Blackboards, 211. 

Board of Education, as state officers, 
39; committees of, 27; duties of, 
outlined, 30; how elected, 27; 
minutes of meetings of, inadequate, 
35; powers of, 23; reorganization of, 
proposed, 36; rules of, should be 
revised, 39; should define func- 
tions of officers, 38; size of, 
27; term of members of, 27. 

Boise, as a city, 1-3; adult educa- 
tion in, 10; as a state educational 
experiment station, 26; charter of, 
222; educational problem of, de- 
fined, I, 22; educational responsi- 
bility of, 20, 26; expenditures of, 

287 



16; favorably situated for main- 
taining schools, 283; illiteracy in. 
8 ; income of, 13 ; racial composi- 
tion of population of, 5; tax rate 
of, relatively low, 15, 54. 

Boise compared with other cities in 
respect to: growth of population, 
3; allotment of time to spelling, 
78; assessed and real wealth, 14; 
cost of high schools in comparison 
with attendance, 273; cost of in- 
struction, 276; cost of schools per 
person 5 to 19 years old, 265; cost 
of schools per child in average daily 
attendance, 267; cost of schools per 
unit of wealth, 268; cost of schools 
per young adult, 270; efficiency in 
arithmetic, 108; growth of popula- 
tion, 3; illiteracy, 11; per capita 
cost of education, 264; percentage 
of city expenditures devoted to 
education, 18; percentage of high 
school graduates who go to college, 
242; percentage of total enrollment 
found in high school, 228; pupils in 
attendance per teacher, 55 ; retarda- 
tion, 133; size of different age 
groups in the city, 7; tax rate and 
per capita cost of city government, 
IS; teachers' salaries, 61. 

Budget, by whom adopted, 30, 32; 
need for, 279; relation of, to ad- 
ministrative policy, 280. 

Buildings. See School buildings 

Business management, 262; how 
handled, 276. 



Children's home, 158, 

Classrooms 210; equipment of, 215; 

standard for, 214. 
Clerk, as purchasing agent, 37, 278. 
Committees, board of education, 27; 

evils of, 29; how appomted, 27; 

need for temporary, 24; objections 

to standing, 28; on auditing and 



288 



Index 



finance not necessary, 30; teach- 
ing, 42. 

Constitution, provisions for educa- 
tion in, 22. 

Contagion in schools, 173; sources of, 
183. 

Cost, accounting, 278; and average 
daily attendance, 273; and busi- 
ness management, 262 ; compara- 
tive study of, 15, 18, 263; in 
elementary and high schools com- 
pared, 272; of education, 272, 276; 
per person 5 to 19 years old, 265; 
per child in average daily attend- 
ance, 267; per unit of city's 
wealth, 268; per capita of young 
adults, 268; over a ten-year period, 
271; salaries, 53, 58; units of, 279. 

Courses of study, 64, 67; administra- 
tion of high schools, 234; and size 
of staff, 54; Boise's independence in 
matters of, 80; high school, 229, 
231; in algebra, 74; in English, 71; 
in history and civics, 74; in mathe- 
matics, 74; in music and art, 74; in 
physical training, 75; in science, 
71 ; opportunities for socializing, 67; 
principles of, defined, 65; should 
include prevocational courses, 69; 
superintendent responsible for, 32 ; 
what printed course should contain, 
69; time allotment for, 75. 

Dependent children, 155, 

Discipline, board's committee on, 27. 

District, legal status of, 22, 24, 26; 

provisions for independent, 22; 

responsibility of, to state, 24. 
Domestic science, 73. 
Drinking fountains, 207. 

Education, adult, 10 ; and occupations, 
19; Boise's problem of, i; cost of, 
in 26 cities, 18; illiteracy a problem 
in public, 10. 

Educational aims and problems, i, 
22. 

Elimination and economic status, 253. 

Enrollment, in Boise and other cities, 
227 ; in elementary and high schools, 
history of, 226; in relation to 
attendance, 128; statistics of, 42. 



Equipment, 83; high school, 228. 
Exceptional children, 141. 
Expenditures, Boise's distribution of, 
16; comparative study of city, 18. 

Feeble-minded children, 150; examples 

of, in Boise, 151. 
Finance, board's committee on, 27. 

See Cost. 
Fire protection, inadequate, 203. 

Grades, not satisfactory basis of 
classification in spelling, 103. 

Graduates, what becomes of 8th-grade, 
224. 

Handwriting, quality of, 87; rate of, 
90; relation of quality to speed in, 
91; results of tests in, 85, 89; 
teaching of, 94. 

Health supervision, importance of, 
168; inadequate, 35; proposed plan 
for, 35. 

Health survey, 169. 

Health work, 161 ; forms used in, 162 ; 
kinds and amounts of, 167; play 
and, 182. 

High school, administration of, 227, 
237; articulation of, with elemen- 
tary school, 223; attendance rela- 
tively large, 68; growth of staff, 
42 ; experience and ages of staff, 48, 
so; salaries of staff, 53, 56; social 
composition and training of staff, 
45, 52. 

Hygiene, teaching of, 184. 

Idaho, Boise's responsibility for illit- 
eracy in, 9, 10; duty of legislature, 
22 ; resources of, 4. 

Illiteracy, 8; Boise's problem of, 10; 
in Idaho, 10; in the West, 9. 

Income, sources of Boise's, 13. 

Independent districts, state provision 
for, 22. 

Individual differences in: age, 135; 
arithmetic, 119; conduct, 153; men- 
tality, 142 ; physique, 158. 

Instruction, efficiency of, 82, 84, 85, 
95; observations of, 83; in frac- 
tions weak, 114. 



Index 



289 



Insurance, old-age, 23 ; bearing of age 
statistics upon administration of, 51. 

Janitors, duties of, 34; health of, 
186 ; to whom responsible, 29, 34, 38. 

Junior college, Boise's need for, 65, 
241, 27s. 

Juvenile court as school attendance 
machinery, 64. 

Juvenile delinquency, schools' respon- 
sibility for, 154. 

Lavatories, need of, 208. 
Life-career classes needed, 247, 257. 
Lighting. See School buildings. 

Manual training, not well provided 
for, 56; domestic science and, 73. 

Map, district and municipal bound- 
aries, 23, 25. 

Medical supervision, 38, 188. 

Mental tests, 142; a basis of promo- 
tion, 145. 

Night schools, 20. 

Nurse, duties of school, 161; should 
have additional help, 168. 

Occupational ambitions of pupils, 247 ; 
contrasted with present occupa- 
tions of fathers, 251. 

Occupations, significance of, for educa- 
tion, 12, 19, 24. 

Open-air schools, 187. 

Opportunity classes, 146. 

Organization, Boise's plan of, 27; a 
proposed plan of, 36; causes of 
weakness in, 38, 39. 

Play, and health, 182. 

Playgrounds, 196; equipment of, 197. 

Population, age distribution of, 7; 
Boise's rate of increase in, 2; com- 
parative study of, in cities, 3; 
occupational distribution of, 12; 
illiteracy in Boise's, 8, 10; racial 
composition of, 4. 

Principals, men, needed, 43; number 
of, 41 ; teaching, 29, 31, 40. 

Promotion, right basis of, 131, 145. 

Reports, superintendent's, 32. 
Research department, 158. 



Retardation, causes of, 137. 

Retarded pupils, 132 ; in Boise, as 

compared with other cities, 133. 
Retirement funds, 23; age of teachers 

and the, 50. 

Salaries, board's committee on, 27; 
comparative study of, 58, 59; Dr. 
Bryan's comments on, 57; expendi- 
ture for, 56; schedule of, 53. 

Scholarship, high school, and grading, 
238. 

School buildings, 22, 192; ages of 
Boise's, 192, 217; basements of, 201; 
board's committee on, 27; fire pro- 
tection in, 204; grounds of, 196; 
high school, 228; inspection of, 33; 
lighting of, 212; measured by 
standard scale, 194; placement of, 
198; title of inspector of, should be 
changed, 40; types of, 199. 

Schools, charter provisions for, 26; as 
social agencies, 34; homogeneity of 
population of, 4 ; population of, rela- 
tively small in Boise, 6; state super- 
vision of, 26; work of, not well 
coordinated, 33. 

Special classes, need for, 144, 160; 
rooms for, 216. 

Special rooms, 216. 

Spelling, tests of, 94 ; time devoted to. 
78. 

Superintendent, duties of, 27, 30, 33, 
36, 42. 

Supervision, 82 ; attitude of principals 
toward, 32; Boise's plan of, weak, 
31, 41; desirable changes proposed 
for, 33; health, inadequate, 35; 
judged by results of tests, 85, 105, 
114, 126; judged by observation of 
instruction, 84; of study in high 
school, 240. 

Tax, rate of levy, comparative study 
of, IS- 

Teachers, appointed by whom, 30; 
ages of, so; board's committee on, 
27; changes in Boise's staff of, 44; 
experience and tenure of, 48 ; health 
of, 186; high school, 229; increase 
in number of, needed, 41, 42, 82; 
influence of war on staff of, 54; 



290 



Index 



men, needed, 43; pupil attendance 
and number of, 55; salaries of, 
53 ; social composition of, 52 ; train- 
ing of, 45, 47- 

Tests, 84; arithmetic, 106, 108, 112; 
handwriting, 85 ; psychological, 
needed in vocational guidance, 259; 
spelling, 94; variation in results of, 
84, 94. 

Textbooks, district may select its own, 
23; board committee on, 27; super- 
intendent should select, 30, 32. 

Time allotment, 75, 102, 105; de- 
tails of, for spelling, 78; in Boise 
as compared with other cities, 79; 
revision of, needed, 126; variation 
of, among schools, 76. 



Toilets, 201, 209. 

Truancy, not well handled, 34. 

Trustees. See Board of Education. 

Ungraded rooms, need for, SS- 

Ventilation, 175, 186, 202. 

Vision tests needed, 180. 

Visiting teacher, 34; health work and 

the, i68; and school attendance, 

168. 
Vocational guidance, 247; information 

needed in, 257; reasonable program 

of, 256. 

Wealth, Boise's, 12, 14. 
Windows, 213. 



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A curriculum in tune ivith modern life 

CHILD LIFE AND THE 
CURRICULUM 

By Junius L. Meriam 

Prtftsftr of School Suftrviiien and Suferinttndtnt of tht Univtrsitj Sthoohy 
Univtrsitj of Missouri 

The traditional curriculum is tottering and crumbling. The demand 
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and a way out of the beaten path. 

Other features of this book of special help are the following: 

1 Statement outline for each chapter. 

3 Lists of supplementary readings and general references at 
the ends of chapters. These constitute a good bibUography 
of modern educational literature. 

8 Numerous tables of information relating to causes of 
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tribution of grades, books read in different grades. 

4 Outlined curriculum of the University of Missouri Elemen- 
tary School. 

The author not only indicates the possibility of greater service on the 
part of the school; he points the way from the vantage point of substan- 
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WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

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I The first book on reconstruction | 

I Published November igi8 I 

I DEMOCRACY AND I 

I WORLD RELATIONS | 

j By DAVID STARR JORDAN I 

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I PLAY SCHOOL SERIES 

I Edited by Clark W. Hetherington 

\ Educating by Story-Telling 

I SHOWING THE VALUE OF STORY-TELLING AS AN EDUCA- 

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A COLLECTION OF THE WORLD'S BEST LITERA- 
TURE FOR CHILDREN 

TYPES OF CHILDREN'S 
LITERATURE 

Collected and Edited by Walter Barnes 

Head of the Department of English, State Normal School, Fairmont, W. Va, 



T 



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Studies in Methods of Teaching in the College 

COLLEGE TEACHING 

Edited by Paul Klapper 

nPHE introduction to this first book on this subject is the 
work of President Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia 
University. Thirty-one leading American authorities are 
the authors of the chapters which deal with every subject in 
the college curriculum. These were written on the same plan, 
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were selected for their scholarship, interest in the teaching 
phase of the subject, and reputation in the academic world. 

The book Is divided into six parts as follows: 

The Introductory Studies 

The Sciences 

The Social Sciences 

The Languages and Literatures 

The Arts 

Vocational Subjects 

A treasure of wisdom is stored in the colleges of America. The I 

teachers in them are the custodians of the knowledge. Impar- | 

ting this knowledge is the function of these institutions of I 

higher learning. To do this most effectively is the plan of every I 

instructor. This book aims to make the college teacher cffi- I 

cient in handing down this heritage of knowledge, rich and | 

vital, that will develop in youth the power of right thinking | 

and the courage of right living i 

a 

Dr. Butler writes that **a careful reading of the book is com- | 

mended not only to the great army of college teachers and | 
college students, but to that still greater army of those who, 
whether as alumni or parents or as citizens, are deeply con- 
cerned with the preservation of the influence and character 
of the American college for its effect upon our national stan- 
dards of thought and action " 

Cloth, xvi +583 pages, 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, New YoRK 

2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago 



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i 

Complete list of the | 

School Efficiency Series | 

Edited by Paul H. Hanus, of Harvard University | 

"Our »f the most rtQteworthy undertakings in frofessional education »/ g 

thtctnturj." — Professor C. H. Johnston, University of Illinois 1 

I 

Frank P. Bachman. Problems in Elementary School Administration. i 

Frank W. Ballou. High School Organization. i 

S. A. Courtis. Standards in Arithmetic. In preparation | 

Ellwood p. Cubberley, Fletcher B. Dresslar, Edward C. Elliott, | 

i J. H. Francis, Frank E. Spauldinc, and Lewis M. Terman. The | 

I Portland Survey. I 

I Calvin O. Davis. High School Courses of Study. i 

I I 

i Edward C. Elliott. City School Supervision. § 

I Henry H. Goddard. School Training of Defective Children. § 

Paul H. Hanus. School Efficiency : A Constructive Study. | 

Frank M. McMurry. EUementary School Standards. Instruction: Course 1 

of Study : Supervision. i 

E 

Ernest C. Moore. How New York City Administers Its Schools: A Con- | 

structive Study. f 

Herman Schneider. Education for Industrial Workers. | 

George D. Strayer, Frank P. Bachman, Ellwood P. Cubberley, | 

William T. Bawden, and F. J. Kelly. Some Problems in City School | 

Administration. i 

Frank V. Thompson. Commercial Education in Public Secoodary Schoolt | 

i 



Btois sent ftstfaid »n receipt of f rice 
Illustrated catalog of the Series for the asking 



WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

YoNKERS-ON-HuDSON, NlW YoRK 

2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago 



